Importance of Olericulture

India is the second largest producer of vegetables in the world (surpassed only by China), accounting for about 10 per cent of the world’s production. In 2002, India produced 78.2 million tons from 5.73 million ha of land. Indian farmers grow an amazing number that is 175  different vegetables  but potato, tomato, onion, cabbage and cauliflower account for 60 per cent of total production.
It is projected that the domestic vegetable requirements will rise from current levels of 83-91 million tonnes to 151-193 million tonnes by 2030. Indian farmers today cannot meet the high domestic demand for vegetables, as India imports approximately $678 million of vegetables annually.
To increase domestic vegetable production, improvements are first needed in the vegetable seed industry. There are now more than 50 seed companies developing new vegetable varieties, with increased emphasis on high-yielding hybrids. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research has three major institutes for conducting research on vegetables: Indian Institute of Horticultural Research (IIHR) in Bangalore, Indian Institute for Vegetable Research (IIVR) at Varanasi, and Indian Agriculture Research Institute (IARI) in New Delhi. Almost all agricultural universities and the State Department of Agriculture are involved in vegetable research and development. Among the 25,000 plant scientists in  India, at least 1,000 are conducting research on vegetables. To increase year-round vegetable consumption, the seasonality of production must be reduced. Processing can make vegetables more accessible year-round, but less than 7 per cent of India’s vegetable production is processed. Another factor that limits consumption is post-harvest damage. Currently 20-25 per cent of vegetables produced are lost due to poor post-harvest handling, and in the case of tomato and cabbage, Post- harvest losses are as high as 60 per cent. To remedy these losses, special cold storage vegetable markets and supermarkets are emerging in metropolitan areas. Specialized vegetable marketing centers are organized in strategic locations and vegetables farmers receive assistance to transport and systematically market their produce.
Vegetable exports under WTO regime
         India is a major exporter of vegetables, exporting approximately $246 million of
vegetables annually. In the past, Indian vegetable exports were restricted to potatoes and fresh onions. But now the Government of India observes great  opportunities for expanding exports of several more vegetables, including lettuce, fresh peppers, tomatoes, squash and gherkins. For example, the export of fresh tomatoes alone increased eight fold.

Export potential
The world trade organization (WTO) and General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) has opened new opportunities for exporting fresh and processed vegetables. During 2001-02, Rs. 582.31 crore have been realised with the export of total fresh vegetables. In India, Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) is the nodal organisation to access the market, guide and promote export of agricultural commodities. APEDA has identified traditional vegetables including okra, bitter gourd, chilli, onion, potato and non-traditional vegetables like asparagus, celery, sweet pepper, sweet corn, baby corn, green peas, french bean, cucumber, gherkins and cherry tomato having good export potential. Cultivation of new vegetable like gherkin, baby corn, sweet corn, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, Chinese cabbage, asparagus, celery and parsley is one the rise trends and provide better returns.   The vegetables being exported include okra, tomato, baby corn, cucumber, gherkins, chillies, french bean, capsicum, bitter gourd, bottle gourd, onion and potato. Usually, nontraditional vegetables are exported to European countries and Australia, in addition to Gulf and South East Asian Countries. Whole pod edible garden pea is also in demand in European countries. However onion and traditional vegetables are being exported to Malaysia, Singapore, Gulf countries, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Nepal.
Export of processed vegetables
The Government of India while realising the global potential of processed fruits and vegetables, even in dried and dehydrated form. has classified the horticulture development as a thrust area. A national policy and programme has been formulated in this regard, there are a number of schemes facilitated at Centre/State Govt. levels for development of this industry. The Ministry of food Processing Industries has been offering appreciable economic incentives to promote food parks in the country, while APEDA/Ministry of Commerce encourages and supports the establishing of Agri Export Zones (AEZs). The installed capacity of food and vegetable processing industry in the country has increased from 1,108 million tonnes in 1993 to 2.328 million tonnes as on 1st April. 2004. The utilisation of fruits and vegetables for processing in the organised and unorganised sector is estimated to be around 2 per cent of the total production, over the last few years, there has been a positive growth in ready-to-serve beverages, dehydrated and frozen vegetables, tomato products, pickles, spices paste and curried vegetables. There are about 63 vegetables traded in the world market in dehydrated, canned and processed form. Dried and preserved vegetables are in demand in Egypt, Sri Lanka,UAE, USA and Turkey. The total quantity of dried and preserved vegetables exported during 2003-2004 is estimated to be 211.16 lakh tonnes valued at Rs, 520.49 crore. The export of dehydrated vegetables from India is dominated by just five main products, which are onion flakes and powder, tamarind powder, dehydrated vegetables, garlic powder/flakes.  The main product of export is dehydrated onion flakes/powder, which has been of the order of about 7224 MT valued at Rs.32.95 crores approximately in the year 2000-01.
Human body requires a wide range of nutrients like carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamins and minerals for normal growth and sustenance of physiological activities.  Protein, carbohydrates and fat, generally referred as proximate principles are required in large quantities and are oxidized in the body to yield energy.  Protein is the major growth promoting or body building nutrient. Vitamins and minerals are required in small quantities for physiological processes and metabolic activities.  Vegetables are rich and comparatively cheap sources of vitamins like β-carotene, folic acid, vitamin-B, vitamin-C, vitamin-E, minerals like iron, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and dietary fibres.  It also supplies fair amount of carbohydrates, protein (4%) and energy (10%).
Vitamin-A is essential for clear vision in dim light and its deficiency leads to night blindness and dry-eye or Xerophthalmia.  Vitamin-A as β-carotene or pro-vitamin-A, which gets converted to vitamin-A in liver and intestine.  Former is found only in foods of animal origin.  The β-carotene is found in green leaf vegetables and yellow fruits / tubers like carrot, pumpkin, papaya and sweet potato.  This fat-soluble vitamin is not soluble in water and is not easily lost while cutting, washing and cooking.
Prolonged deficiency of Thiamine (vitamin-B1) leads to beri beri disease Vitamin B 2 complex consisting of riboflavin and nicotinic acid (niacin), vitamin-B6 (pyridoxine), vitamin-B12 and folic acid (folacine) are all essential for metabolic activities and their deficiency lead to pellagra, anemia and other disorders.  Leguminous vegetables, onion bulbs, green onion, sweet potato and cabbage contain a fair amount of vitamin-B group.  Folic acid is abundant in spinach, other green leaf vegetables and beans.
Man requires about 50 mg of vitamin-C (Ascorbic acid) daily and is mainly met from fruits and vegetables.  Its deficiency causes “scurvy” characterized by weakness, bleeding gums and defective bone growth.  Vitamin-C is a strong reducing agent and is lost easily on exposure to air and on cooking.  Vegetables like tomato, sweet pepper, chilli, immature bean seed and bean sprouts are good sources of vitamin-C.
Vitamin-E (α-tocopherol) prevents oxidation of β-carotene and vitamin-A in intestine. Green leaf vegetables are fairly good sources of this vitamin.  Leaf vegetables like palak, fenugreek, drumstick etc. supply a fair amount of minerals like calcium, iron, phosphorus etc.  Tender fruits of okra contain iodine, essential for prevention of goiter disease.
Root and tuber vegetables like potato, sweet potato, cassava, yams and elephant foot yam contain high amount of carbohydrates.  Leguminous vegetables like peas, beans, cowpea and hyacinth bean are good sources of proteins (14%).
Vegetables are rich sources of dietary fibre consisting of cellulose, non-starch polysaccharides and lignin.  Role of dietary fibre in protection against colon cancer, lowering of blood pressure and diabetes is realized now.  It is recommended to include-40.0 g of dietary fibre in our daily diet.  Most of leaf vegetables are rich sources of dietary fibre.
Recommended daily allowance (RDA) by the Indian Council of Medical Research in  for an adult man is 300 g of vegetables.  It includes 100 g roots and tubers, 125g of leaf vegetables and 75 g other vegetables.  The RDA for a woman is 75 g roots and tubers, 125 g. leaf vegetables and 75 g other vegetables totaling to 275 g/day.  However, it varies with age of people and nature of work.
Vegetables as protective food
Vegetables are protective foods as their consumption prevents many diseases.  Almost all vegetables are finding important roles in traditional systems of medicine.  Several chemicals having therapeutic value were identified from vegetables.  Antioxidants and flavanoids are the most important among them.
Role of vegetables as a source of antioxidants in prevention of new generation diseases and delaying ageing is well recognized.  Antioxidants like β-carotene, ascorbic acid (vitamin-C), α-tocopherol (vitamin-E), amino acids and flavanoids present in various vegetables act as scavengers of free radicals, which induce cancer development, brain disorders and arteriosclerosis.  Free radicals are molecules or atoms with unpaired electrons and are unstable and highly reactive.  These free radicals initiate chain reactions of destructive processes by removing electrons from stable compounds forming many unstable compounds, free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS).  Inflammation, strenuous exercise, exposure to certain chemicals, radiation, UV light, alcohol, cigarette smoke, air pollutants and excess of free fat diets also produce free radicals.  Ageing results in a decreased production of enzymes, which counter adverse effects of free radicals and ROS.
Antioxidants act as scavengers of free radicals and ROS, and prevent them from causing further damage.  Actions of free radicals are prevented or inactivated by chain reaction antioxidants.  Antioxidants have definite roles in prevention of certain cancer, age related eye diseases, coronary artery diseases and HIV.  Certain minerals like selenium and flavanoids like quercetin, kaempferol, myricetin and luteolin have also been isolated from vegetables.
Onion and garlic contain several sulphur compounds like allicin and diallyl disulphide which are effective for control of blood cholesterol and preventing heart diseases.  It also has antibacterial properties.  The diphenylamine in onion is effective against diabetes.
Bitter gourd contains a hypoglycemic ingredient ‘cheratin’ having effect against diabetes. Leguminous vegetables and brinjal also reduce blood cholesterol level indicating their role in preventing heart diseases.  The 3-n-butyl pthalide isolated from celery is effective against hypertension.  Certain species of yams contain diosgenin, used in manufacture of cortisone and contraceptive drugs.
Cole crops like Brussels sprouts, sprouting broccoli, knol khol and cabbage have anti-carcinogenic properties mainly due to hydrolysed glucosinolate derived products such as isothiocynates and indoles.  Presence of Indol-3 carbinol, offers protection against bowel cancer.  Although, enzymatic hydrolytic products from glucosinolates are goitrogenic, some of the breakdown products induce enzymes responsible for detoxification of reactive carcinogens and eliminates carcinogens from mammalian tissue.  The National Research Council Committee on Diet, Nutrition and Cancer, India and the American Cancer Society suggested inclusion of vegetables belonging to Brassica genus to reduce incidence of human cancer.  In ancestral times, it was used against gout, diarrhea, stomach and celiac troubles.  Cabbage juice is used as a remedy against poisonous mushrooms.
Toxic and anti-nutrient compounds
Plants produce toxins as a defense mechanism to protect from man and animals.  During course of evolution and continuous cultivation, these undesirable qualities might have been eliminated by selection.  Still a few harmful chemicals like trypsin inhibitors, phytates, oxalates and nitrates exist in cultivated vegetables.
Trypsin inhibitors are widely distributed in legumes, especially in raw soybeans.  They inhibit activity of trypsin in the gut and interfere with digestibility of dietary proteins and reduce their utilization by affecting hydrolysis of proteins to amino acids.
Phytic acid (inositol hexaphosphoric acid) present in mature seeds of peas and beans binds iron, zinc, calcium and magnesium and reduces bio-availability of iron.  On germination of grains, phytate content reduces due to enzymatic break down which improves iron availability.
Green leaf vegetables and legumes are rich source of oxalates and oxalic acid.  Maximum oxalate concentration is noticed in amaranth (772 mg / 100 g).  Oxalic acid converts calcium from the food consumed to insoluble calcium oxalates making it unavailable for absorption.  Calcium oxalate crystals present in leaves and tubers of Amorphophallus and Colocasia cause itching of skin, tongue and throat.  Dietary oxalates contribute to increased excretion of oxalate in urine leading to urinary stones.
Vegetables are the single largest source of nitrate in human diet.  Leaf vegetables have high concentration of nitrate.  Nitrate accumulation results in serious deleterious effects.  Within gastrointestinal tract, nitrate is reduced to nitrite, which is absorbed into blood stream where it binds with hemoglobin, oxidizing ferrous ion to ferric ion to form methaemoglobin.  Methaemoglobin is incapable of oxygen transport and results in anoxia specifically referred to as “methaemoglobinaemia”.  When nitrite ions combine with secondary or tertiary amines, N-nitroso compounds are formed, a few of which are potent carcinogens.  On cooking, nitrate content gets reduced drastically.
Tapioca leaves contain glucosides, which liberate hydrocyanic acid by action of enzymes in stomach.  Dioscorea species contain a toxic alkaloid, dioscorin that can be made harmless by boiling.  Potato tubers when exposed to sunlight become green and produce an alkaloid called solanin, which is bitter in taste.  A few brinjal varieties were also found bitter due to high solanin content.
All the brassicas contain glucosinolates (thioglucosides), which are sulphur containing compounds.  Break down of glucosinolates with help of their associate enzymes produce the culinary flavour to cabbage, cauliflower and broccoli.  The thioglucosides (sinigrin) are non-goitrogenic.  But on enzymatic hydrolysis in the presence of an enzyme myrosinase, it produces allyl thiocynate-a goitrogen.  At high intake levels, it causes enlargement of thyroid glands.  Though cabbage contains goitrogen, its goitrogenic properties would be lost during cooking.
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1. Vegetables rich in vitamin ‘A’
2. Antinutritional compounds
a. oxalate                    b. chlorophyll
c. lycopere                  d. xanthophylls
3. Isothocynates presents in
a. cole crops               b. amaranthus             c. solanaceous vegetables     d. cucurbits
4. Temperate vegetables seed production done in
a. pusa            b. kullu valley             c. IIHR             d. IIVR
5. RDA for adults
a. 250 g                       b. 300 g           c. 410 g                       d. 500 g

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• Supply fresh fruits and vegetables high in nutritive value
• Supply fruits and vegetables free from toxic chemicals
• Help to save expenditure on purchase of vegetables and economize therapy
• Induces children on awareness of dignity of labour
• Vegetables harvested from home garden taste better than those purchased from market.

• Perennial vegetables like drumstick, curry leaf and bilimbi should be allotted to one side of the garden so that they may neither shade remaining plants nor they interfere with intercultural operations.  Shade loving vegetables like water leaf may be planted in perennial plot.  One or two compost pits may be provided on one corner of kitchen garden for effective utilization of farm / kitchen waste.
• Fences on all sides should be made with barbed wire or with live stakes.  Fencing on four sides may be planting chekkurmanis, ivy gourd, dolichos bean, trailing cowpea and ridge gourd.  Fence may be made strong by planting agathi  (Sesbania grandiflora) at 1.0 m. distance along the fence.  An arch made of red or green Basella may be erected at entry point or gate of kitchen garden.
• After allotting areas for perennial crops, remaining portion is divided into 6-10 equal plots for raising annual vegetable crops.  By following scientific crop rotation, three annual crops can be raised in the same plot.  Companion cropping or accession cropping, inter cropping and mixed cropping can be followed for effective utilization of space.
• Provide walking path at centre as well as along four sides.  Path can be made attractive by planting red and green amaranth or indeterminate tomato on either side.
• Utilize ridges, which separate individual plots for growing root and tuber crops.
• As intensive and continuous cropping is done in a kitchen garden, fertility and texture of soil may be maintained by applying adequate quantities of organic manure frequently.  Organic farming should be given thrust for a kitchen or home garden.  However, in order to harvest good crop, chemical fertilizers are also essential.
• Since fresh vegetables are directly utilized, follow clean cultivation, mechanical removal of pest / disease affected plants, planting of resistant varieties, biological control, use of bio-pesticides or bio-fungicides for pest and disease control in a kitchen garden.
• In a kitchen garden, preference should be given to long duration and steady yielding varieties than high yielding ones, which require constant care.
• Crop arrangement : While allotting or arranging crops in each sub-plot, care should be taken to plant varieties / crops at ideal time of planting or season.  Principles of crop rotation also should be followed in continuous cropping.
• A bee-hive may be provided for ensuring adequate pollination of crops besides obtaining honey.
• A cropping pattern for a model kitchen garden in the warm humid tropical condition of Kerala is furnished below.  However, choice of the crop depends on the likes and dislikes of family members.

1. Cultivation in protected structures like glass houses, poly houses, rain shelters etc.
2. Hydroponics
3. Floating type of cultivation
4. River bed cultivation
5. Organic farming

• Shallow fibre glass trays / plastic trays (60 cm length x 40 cm width x 12.5 cm depth) in which plants are grown.
• A collection tank / nutrient solution storage tank.
• A pump which circulates the nutrient solution from reservoir to growing trays through polyethylene tubes.
• A sequential timer to control operation of pump.
• An aerator connected to reservoir through polyethylene tube, to aerate nutrient solution to maintain oxygen level in nutrient solution.

• Checks sand drifting on the dug up trenches and covering the hills sown with seeds.
• Provides partial protection from chilling winds.
• The grass is available for spreading over the sand when the vines grow and cover the sand.
• Prevent the sand being blown off with vines, especially when too hot summer winds sweep the areas in May.

• Cultivate crops in the ideal cropping season: The ideal time of sowing for each vegetable crop is standardized for different agro-climatic zones.  However, minor alterations are to be made to suit to specific localities.
• Avoid off-season cultivation of vegetables in traditional growing areas since it may result in heavy incidence of pests and diseases.
• Cultivate varieties already acclimatized in the locality.  Priority should be given to medium yielding varieties tolerant to pests and diseases rather than high yielding varieties.
• Select pest and diseases resistant varieties in areas and seasons when severe incidence of pests or diseases are expected.
• Follow scientific crop rotation practices regularly in vegetable cultivation.
• Raise a leguminous crop and plough back to soil at its pre flowering stage before cultivating a heavy feeding vegetable crop in particular site.
• Practice shifting type of cultivation and keep land fallow at least one season in a year.
• Plough back all the crop residues to the soil whenever a crop is over.
• Practice composting regularly for converting biodegradable wastes to organic manures.  Fungi like Pleurotus sp., and earthworms (Eudrillus eugineae) can be effectively utilized for making compost at a faster rate and for making it nutrient rich.
• Locally available organic materials like farmyard manure, poultry manure, goat manure, green leaves, organic cakes, fish meal, bone meal, etc. may be given priority for use in the organic farming.  Apply farmyard manure or compost as basal dose and organic concentrates like organic cakes, poultry manure, vermin-compost etc. as top dressing.
• Use weeds as mulches or cover it with soil for converting to organic matter.
• In organic farming, native strains of bio-fertilizers like Rhizobium,  Azotobacter, blue green algae, azolla, phosphate solubilizing bacteria and fungi, mycorrhizal fungi, etc. may be utilized for fixing nitrogen and increasing availability of phosphorus to plants.  The enzymes and hormones produced by microorganisms also impart favourable effects on growth and productivity of crops.
• Burning pits before sowing or practice solarisation to control soil borne pests and diseases.
• Remove alternate hosts of pests and diseases and follow eco-friendly pests and disease control measures like cutting and removal of pests and diseased plants or plant parts, trap cropping, use of colour, sticky and other traps for attracting and killing insects.
• Promote biological control of pests and diseases by promoting parasites and predators.
• Home made insecticides like neem oil – garlic mixture, neem kernel suspension, tobacco decoction, etc. have wide use for control of pests and diseases in organic farming of vegetables.  Plants like Andrographis sp.,  Clerodendron, Eucalyptus etc. also have values in pest control.
• Micro organisms like viruses, fungi, bacteria etc. Are currently utilized in pest control under organic farming.  Nuclear polyhedrosis viruses (NPV) for control of Heliothis armigera, bacteria like Pseudomonas fluorescens against diseases incited by Phytophthora, Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Fusarium, Colletotrichum, Rolstonia, and Xanthomonas; Bacillus thuringiensis for control of insect pests Plutella sp., Heliocoverpa sp., Earias sp. etc.; fungi like Fusarium pallidoroseum for control of aphids are useful in organic farming.  Fungal antagonists like Trichoderma sp. For control of soil borne diseases caused by Pythium and Phytophthora, and Pseudomonas fluorescens for control of specific fungal, bacterial and viral diseases are also effective.
• Insects like Trichogramma brasiliensis, T. chelonis and Chrysoperla carnea can also be utilized in eco-friendly pest control in vegetables.

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VEGETABLE CLASSIFICATION

Quite a large number of vegetable crops are grown in the country either on a commercial scale or limited to backyards of homesteads.  A few crops have similarity while others have dissimilarity in their climatic and soil requirements, parts, used, method of cultivation etc.  While describing individual vegetables, there is possibility of repetition in many aspects.  In order to avoid repetition, it is essential to classify or group into different classes/groups.  Different methods of classification followed in vegetables are described below:
Botanical classification
Botanical classification is based on taxonomical relationship among different vegetables.  Plant kingdom is divided into four viz.  Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteriodophyta and Spermatophyte.  All vegetables belong to division Angiospermae of Spermatophyta.  It is further divided into two classes viz., Monocotyledoneae and dicotyledoneae.
The family wise distribution of vegetables under the classes is as follows:
Monocotyledoneae
Family –           Alliaceae
Allium cepa                                         Onion
Allium cepa var. Aggregatum             Multiplier onion
Allium cepa var. Viviparum                 Top onion
Allium porrum                                      Leek
Allium sativum                         Garlic
Allium fistulosum                                 Welsh onion
Allium ascalonicum                             Shallot
Allium schoenoprasum                       Chive
Family –           Liliaceae
Asparagus officinalis                          Asparagus
Family –           Araceae
Dioscorea alata                                   Larger yam
Dioscorea esculenta                           Lesser yam
Colocasia esculenta                           Taro
Family –           Poaceae (Graminae)
Zea mays                                            Sweet corn
Dicotyledoneae
Family –           Aizoaceae
Tetragonia expansa                            New Zealand spinach
Family –           Chenopodiaceae
Beta vulgaris                                       Beetroot and Palak
Beta vulgaris var. cicla                       Swiss chard
Spinacia oleracea                               Spinach
Artiplex hortensis                                Chakwat / orach
Chenopodium album                           Bathua
Family –           Asteraceae (Compositae)
Cichorium intybus                               Chicory
Cichorium endivia                               Endive
Lactuca sativa                                                Lettuce
Cynara scolimus                                 Artichoke
Family –           Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea batatas                                 Sweet potato
Family –           Brassicaceae (Cruciferae)
Brassica oleracea var. acephala        Kale
Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera     Brussels sprouts
Brassica oleracea var. capitata          Cabbage
Brassica oleracea var. botrytis          Cauliflower
Brassica oleracea var. italica             Sprouting broccoli
Brassica caulorapa                             Kohlrabi or knol khol
Brassica napus var. napobrassica    Rutabaga
Brassica campestris var. rapa                       Turnip
Brassica juncea                                  Leaf mustard
Brassica chinensis, B. pekinensis     Chinese cabbage
Armoracia rusticana                           Horse-radish
Raphanus sativus                               Radish
Family –           Cucurbitaceae
Cucurbita peop                                   Summer squash
Cucurbita moschata                           Pumpkin
Cucurbita maxima                               Winter squash
Cucurbita lanatus                                Water melon
Cucumis melo                                     Musk melon
Cucumis melo var. momordica           Snap melon
Cucumis melo var. utilissimus                        Long melon
Cucumis melo var. conomon              Oriental picking melon
Cucumis sativus                                 Cucumber
Praecitrullus fistulosus                       Tinda
Sechium edule                                                Chow-Chow
Luffa acutangula                                 Ridge gourd
Luffa cylindrica                                    Sponge gourd
Lagenaria siceraria                             Bottle gourd
Trichosanthes dioica                          Pointed gourd / Parwal
Trichosanthes anguina                       Snake gourd
Momordica charantia                          Bitter gourd
Benincasa hispida                              Ash gourd
Family –           Euphorbiaceae
Manihot esculenta                               Tapioca
Family –           Fabaceae (Leguminosae)
Pisum sativum                                                Peas
Phaseolus vulgaris                             French bean
Phaseolus lunatus                              Lima bean
Vicia faba                                            Broad bean
Vigna unguiculata                               Cowpea
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba                   Cluster bean
Vigna unguiculta var. sesquipedalis   Asparagus bean
Lablab purpureas                                Lablab bean
Glycine max                                        Soybean
Psophocarpus tetragonolobus           Winged bean
Tigonella foenum graecum                 Methi / fenugreek
Tigonella corniculata                           Kasuri methi
Family –           Malvaceae
Abelmoschus esculentus                   Okra / Bhendi
Family –           Solanaceae
Solanum tuberosum                            Potato
                        Solanum melongena                           Brinjal
Solanum lycopersicum                       Tomato
Capsicum annuum                              Chilli
Family –           Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
Daucus carota                                                Carrot
Petroselinum crispum                         Parsley
Apium graveolens                               Celery
Pastinaca sativa                                 Parsnip
Cultural and climatic requirements of crops belonging to a family are not always similar.  Cultural requirement of radish is entirely different from that of cabbage.  Similarly climatic requirement of peas are different from that of cowpea.
Classification based on hardiness
This classification is based on ability to withstand frost and low temperature and it will be useful to know season of cultivation of a crop.  Here the vegetable crops are classified into hardy, semi hardy and tender.  Hardy vegetables tolerate frost and low temperature and are basically winter or cool season or temperate vegetables.  Warm season or subtropical or tropical vegetables are considered as tender since they cannot withstand frost.  Temperate vegetables, in general, can be stored for long periods under low temperature.  Tropical vegetables are bulky and more perishable compared to temperate vegetables.

Classification based on parts used
In this system, crops are classified based on their parts used for vegetable purpose.
Tender stem and leaves         :           Cabbage, Chinese cabbage, knolkhol.
Amaranth, palak etc.
Fruits                                       :           Tomato, brinjal, chilli, cowpea etc.
Flower parts                            :           Sprouting broccoli
Under ground portion              :           Carrot, radish, beet root, potato etc.
The cultural requirements of crops in each group may not be same.  For eg., cultural requirement of cowpea is different for that of tomato.  Same is that of cabbage and palak.
Classification based on cultural requirement
This is the most convenient and widely used system of classification of vegetables.  Vegetables having similar cultural requirements are grouped together and placed in one group.  For eg., crops belonging to group Cucurbits are seed propagated, direct sown, trailing and vigorous growing, cross pollinated and the cultural practice are almost same.

1. Solanaceous fruit vegetables
2. Cucurbits
3. Peas and beans
4. Cole crops
5. Bulb crops
6. Root crops
7. Potato
8. Tuber crops
9. Okra
10. Pot herbs / greens
11. Salad crops
12. Perennial vegetables

Classification based on season of cultivation
This is one of the most important classifications from the grower’s point of view since majority of vegetables are season bound and specific to particular seasons.  Vegetables are classified into summer season crops, rainy season crops and winter season crops based on growth and production during particular seasons.
Spring / summer season prevails from February to June / July under North Indian plains and from January to May / June in South Indian plains.  October to January is winter season, experiencing chilling temperature, in most parts of the country.  However, in high rain warm humid climatic condition of Kerala, a distinct winter season is lacking and rainy season starts from June and extents up to September.  Here vegetable crops can be grouped as rainy season, mild winter season, and summer season crops.
A few typical vegetables suited to each group are :
Winter season crops   –           Cruciferous vegetables, carrot, radish, beetroot,
onion, garlic, peas etc.
Mild winter                   –           Hyacinth bean, winged bean, tomato
Summer season         –           All gourds, amaranth
Rainy season crops    –           Bhendi, chilli, brinjal, cluster been, cowpea etc.
However, depending on receipts of rain, slight variation is noticed in different parts of country.  Usually early rains are received in Kerala where monsoon starts during last week of May or first week of June.
Vegetable crops can also be classified based on duration of crop growth and flowering (annual / biennial / perennial), ability to grow and set seeds under a particular climate (temperate / tropical / sub tropical), mode of pollination (Self pollinated (<5% cross pollination) / cross pollinated (>12% cross pollination) / often pollinated (5-12% cross pollination).  pH requirement of soil etc.
None of above classifications, except botanical classification, is hard and fast since one and the same crop fall in different groups or can be accommodated in more than one class.  For example, crops like brinjal and chilli are treated as rainy season crops and bitter gourd, snake gourd and cucumber as summer season crops.  These vegetables can be successfully cultivated in other seasons as well, by taking adequate care.  Varieties within a crop also exhibit variations in their response to season of cultivation, temperature requirement etc.  In crops like cowpea, there are specific varieties suited to rainy season, summer season and winter season.
Each method of classification has its own relevance under specific situations and will be helpful to know the crop requirements by professionals, farmers and students.
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1. Scientific method of classification
2. Hardy vegetables can tolerate
a. low temperature                  b. high temperature
c. drought                                d. high rainfall
3. Flowers as economical part in
a. sprouting broccoli                b. cabbage                  c. palak                       d. knol khol
4. Vegetables classification based on cultural requirement
5. Taro is
a. Colocasia                            b. Dioscorea
c. Amarphophallus                  d. Xanthosoma

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1. Eulycopersicon (Red fruited and self compatible)
2. Eriolycopersicon (Green fruited and self incompatible)

1. L. peruvianum, L. chinense.

Solanum lycopersicum                                   S. pimpinellifolium  

L. chessmanii                                                                         L. hirsutum

Based on growth habit and fruit characters, five forms of L. esculentum are identified. Communae           –           Common tomato Cerasiformae        –           Small fruited cherry tomato Pyriformae                        –           Pear shaped tomato Grandifolium         –           potato leaved tomato Validum                 –           Erect and upright tomato Botany Tomato is a true diploid with 2n=24.  Plant is annual with herbaceous prostrate stem having determinate or indeterminate growth habit.  In the determinate growth, terminal bud ends in a floral bud and further growth in arrested resulting in dwarf and bushy stature.  In indeterminate growth, terminal bud is a leafy bud and terminal and lateral buds continue to grow and there are less production of flowers and fruits on mains tem. Flowers are borne in racemose cyme and flower cluster is known as ‘truss’ ands its position is extra axillary.  Flowers are hermaphrodite, pendulous, pentamerous and hypogenous.  Stamens are six in number and inserted on throat of corolla tube and anthers are convent around style.

• Normal set varieties: Set fruits at 15-20oC.
• Hot set varieties: Set fruits above 20oC – eg : Philipine, Punjab Tropic, Pusa hybrid 1.
• Cold set varieties: Set fruits below 15oC – eg : Pusa Sheetal, Avilanche.

• Mature green:Fruits fully grown, fruit colour changes from green to yellowish and cavity filled with seeds surrounded by gelly like substance.  Harvested for long distance market.
• Turning or breaker stage: Fruits firm, 1/4th portion of fruit changes to pink in colour, but the shoulder still yellowish green.  Harvested for long distance market.
• Pink stage: 3/4th of whole fruit surface turns pink colour.  Harvested for local market.
• Light red: Entire fruit surface is red or pink but the flesh is firm.  Harvested for local market.
• Red ripe or hand ripe: Fully ripened and coloured.  Flesh becomes soft.  Harvested for processing and for seed extraction.

• Deep red colour which retains even after processing.
• Low pH – The acidity of fruits affect-heating time required for sterilization of processed product.  Longer time is required if pH is high and hence a pH below   4-5 is required for processing.
• High TSS – Fruits with high TSS yield more finished products / tonne of raw fruits and hence minimum TSS should be 4.5oB
• High viscosity and consistency
• Firm and easy peeling
• Pericarp thickness-should be more than0.5 cm.
• Crack resistance
• Fruits size should be above 50 g and oblong in shape

• Radial Cracking:Usually seen at ripe stage and crack radiate from pedicel end to stylar end.
• Concentric cracking:Seen around shoulder of fruit even at green stage.
• Cuticular:  Seen on outer skin of fruit.
• Burst:Burst occurs at certain points on shoulder of fruit.

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Origin, area, production, varieties, package of practices for brinjal

Brinjal – (Syn: Egg plant) (Solanum melongena L.) (2n = 24) Hindi: Banigan)
Brinjal is one of the most common tropical vegetables grown in India. It is known by different names like aubergine (French), begun (Bengali), ringna (Gujarathi), baingan (Hindi) badane (Kannada), waangum (Kashmiri), vange (Marathi), baigan (Hindi) badane (Kannada), waangum (Kashmiri), vange (Marathi), baigan (Oriya), Vashuthana (Malayalam), Kathiri (Tamil), venkaya (Telugu) and Peethabhala (Sanskrit). A large number of cultivars differing in size, shape and colour of fruits are grown in India. Immature fruits are used in curries and a variety of dishes are prepared out of brinjal. Fruits are moderate sources of vitamins and minerals like phosphorous, calcium and iron and nutritive value varies from variety to variety.
Brinjal is also valued for its medicinal properties and has got decholestrolizing property primarily due to presence of poly-unsaturated fatty acids (linoleic and lenolenic) present in flesh and seeds of fruit in higher amount (65.1%). Presence of magnesium and potassium salt in fruits also impart de-cholestrolizing action. In native medicines, role of brinjal in treatment of liver diseases, cough due to allergy, rheumatism, colilithiasis, leucorrhea and intestinal worms has been mentioned.
Origin and distribution
Brinjal is originated in Indo- Burma region (Vavliov, 1926). Crop is distributed in south and south East Asia, southern Europe, China and Japan. India is the second largest producer of brinjal in the world next to China and produces 83.47 lakh tonnes from an area of 5.02 lakh ha. Cultivation of brinjal is maximum in Orissa, West Bengal, Bihar and is also distributed in almost all states.
Taxonomy Genus Solanum comprises approximately 2000 species, which include both tuber bearing and non-tuber bearing forms. Important edible species under non-tuber bearing forms are S. melongena, S. torvum, S. nigrum, S. macrocarpom, S. ferox and S. aethiopicum
S. torvum – used for its small clustered fruits for curry purpose and for drying. It is grown as a wild plant in backyards and roadsides. Due to its resistance to Fusarium wilt and bacterial wilt, S. torvum can be a resistant root stock for grafting cultivated S. melongena
S. macrocarpom and S.aethiopicum – grown for edible fruits and leaves. 

Solanum macrocarpom	Solanum aethiopicum

  Solanum nigrum – Small clustered acidic fruits are also edible and are harvested ripening stage when it turns purple in colour. In Tamil Nadu this species is cultivated and for frying. Leaves and flowers of S. nigrum have more resemblance to that of chill                            

Several species of Solanum are used in native medicines through out tropics. S. melongena var. insanum, S. incanum, S. indicum, S. viarum are a few among them.
Studies on inter-specific hybridization revealed incompatibility between cultivated S. melongena with other species, except with S. incanum. Further taxonomic studies revealed that S. incanum is only a variety under S. melongena and can be treated as S. melongena var. incanum.
Based on growth habit and fruit shape, four botanical varieties are reported under S.melongena.
            S.melongena var. melongena (Syn: S.melongena var. Esculenta Nees) includes cultivars with round and egg shaped fruits
            S.melongena var serpentinum Desf. Includes long and slender fruited cultivars
           S.melongena var. depressum includes early and dwarf cultivars
          S.melongena var. incanum includes wild and prickly plants with small fruits.
Botany

Brinjal is a diploid with 2n=2x=24. Plant is erect, semi erect or prostrate, herbaceous and branched with around 1.0m height. Stem is spiny or non spiny with or without purple pigmentation which is due to anthocyanin. Flowers are bisexual, pentamerous and are solitary or in 2-7 flowered cyme. Calyx is persistent and spiny or non spiny. Corolla is lobed with different shapes and purple, light pink or white coloured. Stamens are free and form a loose cone surroundings the style. Dehiscence is poricidal. Ovary is bilocular with many ovules. Heterostyly is very common. Fruit is a berry with wide variation in shape, colour and size. Fruit

shape may be long, oval, round, ovoid, cylindrical or elongated. Fruit colour may be nearly black, different shapes of purple, white, green or variegated.
Flower biology and pollination
Though reported as a self pollinated crop, cross pollination to varying degree has been reported in brinjal. Cross pollination is due to its heteromorphic flower structure and is mainly by honey bees and bumble bees.
Depending on length of style in relation to position of anthers, four types of flowers – heterostyly are available.
Long styled – stigma well above the anthers
Medium styled – stigma and anthers at same level
Short styled – style short
Pseudoshort styled – style rudimentary
Fruit set in long styled flowers ranges from 60 to 70% whereas in medium styled flowers it is 12.5 to 55.6%. Short styled and pseudoshort styled flowers act as male flowers and there is no fruit.
Opening of flower and dehiscence of anthers are almost simultaneous and it takes place at 6-7.30 am during summer and is delayed up to 11 am during winter. Flowering depends on climatic factors and high temperature and humidity in the morning hasten flower opening and dehiscence of anthers. In addition to climatic factors, fertility level of the soil also influences flower initiation and development.
Climate
Brinjal is warm season day neutral plant and is susceptible to severe frost. A long and warm growing season with a temperature range of 21-270C is ideal for its production. Crop is adversely affected by chilling temperature of winter in North India. Generally late cultivars can withstand low temperature than early ones. Plants grown luxuriantly and yield heavily during rainy season under warm humid climatic condition of Kerala.
Soil
Brinjal is a hardy crop and is cultivated under a wide range of soils. Since a long duration crop with high yield, well-drained and fertile soil is preferred for the crop. Crops grown in sandy soils yield early and those grown in clayey soils yield more. Ideal pH for cultivation of crop is 5.5-6.6
Varieties
A large number of cultivars and improved varieties differing in size, shape and colour of fruits are grown in India. Since consumer preference varies from region to region and from district to district, judicious selection of varieties plays an important role in success of brinjal cultivation. Quite a large numbers of local cultivars like Banaras Giant, Wayanad Giant, Mukthakeshi and Manjiri Gota are grown in specific areas.
Fruits of some local cultivars exhibit bitterness due to presence of glycolalkaloids like solanin. Generally glycol-alkaloid content varies from 0.37 to 4.83 mg/ 100g in most of cultivars. High glycol –alkaloids (20 mg/100g fresh weight) produces bitter taste and off flavour. Varieties also vary for content of polyphenol oxidase which imparts brown discoloration when the fruits are cut open.
Pest and disease resistant/ tolerant varieties with upright and sturdy growth habit, high yield, fruits with soft flesh, low seediness, low solanin content and attractive glossy skin are generally preferred for commercial cultivation.
The important features of improved brinjal varieties developed in India are furnished below:

Exploitation of Heterosis
            Brinjal continues to be a choice of breeders for exploitation of heterosis due to hardy nature of crop, comparatively large size of flowers and large number of seeds in a single fruit enabling production of a large number of F1 seeds with a single act of pollination. Highly varied consumer acceptance from region to region also demands for development of a large number of high yielding F1 hybrids. Hand emasculation and pollination are still followed in the hybrid seed production of brinjal. Quite a large number of heterotic hybrids are developed in ICAR institutes and State Agricultural universities and details are furnished below:

In addition, a large number of F1 hybrids are marketed by private seed companies. Supriya, Suphal (IAHS), Kalpatharu, Ravaiya (Mahyco), Kanhaiya, Novkiran, Pragati (Sungro Seeds), Apsara, Nisha (Namdhari) etc are a few commercial hybrids popular among farmers.
Season
In hills, brinjal is sown during March and transplanted during April. In,lains there are three seasons for growing brinjal.
Autumn-winter crop
Crop is sown in June and transplanted in July Spring -summer crop: Crop is sown in early November and transplanted in January-February. Due to low temperature, seedlings take 6 to 8 weeks for attaining normal size for transplanting and nursery beds are to be protected from frost.
Rainy season crop
Seeds are sown in March-April and transplanted during April-May. Being a low priced vegetable, rainy season crop is the most economical in many parts.
Sowing
Seeds are sown in nursery bed and transplanted to main field after four weeks during summer and after 7 to 8 weeks during winter, when it is 8 – 10 cm tall. Depending on growth of varieties and seasons of cultivation, 300 to 3:500 g seeds are required for one hectare. Since brinjal seedlings grow fast, sufficient care must be taken to sow seeds as thin or loose as possible. Hardened seedlings withstand transplanting shock better and establish well in main field.
Main field preparation and transplanting
Proper drainage is essential for growth of brinjal. Soil should be prepared to a fine tilth by 4 to 6 ploughings. FYM should be incorporated in soil at the time of final ploughing. Seedlings .are transplanted in levelled land in plots of convenient size for irrigation. It may be grown on raised beds/ ridges during rainy season. In undulating land, in order to avoid soil erosion, small pits are dug at the point of planting and seedlings are planted.
Spacing depends on variety, season and fertility of soil. For long duration spreading varieties, a spacing of 75-90cm x 60-75 cm and for bushy and non-spreading varieties a distance of 45-60cm on either side are given. For early and less spreading varieties, paired row planting is advantages due to, easiness in harvesting and other cultural operations.
Manures and fertilizers
Brinjal is a long duration crop with high yield potential. Flower and fruit production will be adversely affected when crop is grown under low fertility conditions. Depending on availability, 25 tonnes of FYM/ha may be incorporated in soil at the time of final ploughing. Application of wet cow dung as a band, 10 -12 cm away from the plant, followed by earthing up at fortnightly interval during rainy season is a common practice for high productivity in Kerala.

Fertilizer requirement of crop varies with variety, season and type of soil. Fertilizer requirement for targeted production in Co-2 under Tamil Nadu condition is estimated and 7.6 kg N, 1.4 kg P and 17.3 kg K/ha are required to produce one tonnes of fruits. Fertilizer studies at various centres of AICRP (Vegetables) indicated varying results. Under Bangalore condition, 150 kg N and 100 Kg P20S were optimum while at Hisar it was 100 kg N and 60 kg P20sl ha. For a balanced nutrition, 30 to 60 kg ~O is included in fertilizer package of brinjal in most of the

states. 1/3 N, full P and full K should be applied as basal dose and remaining N in 2 split doses, 1/3 at 25 days after planting and remaining 1/3 N 45 days after.
Application of fertilizers in Tamil Nadu :  Apply FYM 25 t/ha.  N 50 kg, P 50 kg and K 30 kg/ha as basal dose, N 50 kg/ha 30 days after transplanting during earthing up.  Apply 2 kg of Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria in the mainfield at planting.  Spray 2 ppm (1 ml in 500 lit.)  Triacontanol plus Sodium borate or Borax 35 mg/lit. of water 15 days after transplanting and at the time of full bloom to increase the yield.
Irrigation
Though brinjal cannot tolerate water logging, timely irrigation is essential especially for fruit set and development. In plains, irrigation is required at every third or 4th day during summer while in winter it should be at 10-15 days interval. During winter, care should be taken to keep soil moist to avoid crop loss due to frost injury. Being a row planted crop, drip irrigation is advantageous and water used in drip irrigation is only 24.47 cm compared to 69.18 cm under furrow method.
Brinjal is mainly grown as a rainfed crop in high rainfall states like Kerala by transplanting seedlings just before onset of South West monsoon. Here also transplanted seedlings should be given one or two life irrigations for initial establishment.
Intercultivation
It is essential to keep the field free of weeds especially at initial stages of crop growth and is usually done by 2-3 light hoeing or earthing up. This facilitates better aeration to root system and gives support to plants. Application of fluchloralin @ 1.5 kg a.i./ha as a pre-emergent weedicide, applied one week after transplanting seedlings, followed by one hand weeding at 30 days after planting controls a broad spectrum of weeds. Use of black polythene mulches is also efficient for suppression of weeds and for better growth of plants.
Application of growth regulators
Whole plant spray of 2-4, D (2 ppm) at an interval of one week from 60 -­70 days after planting from commencement of flowering increase fruit set, early yield and total yield in brinjal. Spray Mixtalool (long chain C24-C34 aliphatic alcohol) at 4 ppm, 4-6 weeks after transplanting, is also effective and gave additional yield of 7.1% in F1 hybrid Arka Navneet.
Harvesting
Brinjal fruits are harvested at immature stage after attaining full size, but before loosing its glossy appearance. Dullness of fruit indicates over maturity. Usually fruits are harvested along with its stalk with a slight twist by hand. In some varieties, a sharp knife is also used for harvesting fruits along with fleshy calyx and a portion of fruit stalk. The harvested fruits are graded and packed in baskets or in loose gunny bags. Care should be taken to remove the fruits affected by Phomopsis blight.
Yield
Early short duration varieties: 20-30 t/ha
            Long duration varieties: 35-40 t/ha
FI hybrids: 55-80 t/ha
Storage
Fruits can be stored for 7-10 days in a fairly good condition at 7.2-10°C with 85-90% RH. Keeping quality of fruits varies with variety. It is better to store at 20°C than at 6°C and in perforated polythene bags than under open condition.
Seed production
Though brinjal is considered a self pollinated crop, varying amount of cross pollination takes place because of heterostyly. Cross pollination is mainly through honey bees and bumble bees. To encourage pollination, it is advisable to plant Mimosa pudica in the vicinity of brinjal plot. Isolation distance recommended for brinjal is 200 m for foundation seed and 100 m for certified seed.
To maintain genetic purity, rouging should be conducted at pre flowering, flowering and initial fruiting stages. Leaving initial one or two harvests for vegetable purpose is advisable for detection and removal of off types and to avoid chances of contamination from off types.
Fruits are harvested at full ripe stage and crushed with help of a wooden hammer or stone. Crushed fruits are soaked overnight in buckets for softening. This results in easy separation of seeds from pulp when pulp is stirred next day morning. Seeds are then washed with running water and dried under open sun light for half to one hour and later under partial shade till 8% moisture is reached.  Depending on variety used and agronomic packages followed, yield varies from 100-350 kg/ha.
Pests
Pests Fruit and shoot borer, jassids ,epilachna beetle and mites are the major pests.
Fruit and shoot borer (Leucinodes orbonalis)            

                       
The larvae bore into tender parts causing drooping of young shoots and rotting of fruits. Effect plant parts should be removed along with larvae and destroyed crushing or by immersing in insecticide solution.
Jassids (Empoasca spp.)                                              

Adults and nymphs suck sap by feeding from under surface of leave resulting in typical yellowing and drying up of leaves. Varieties . Punjab Barsati and Pusa Kranti have tolerance to jassid attack.
Epilachna beetle
Yellow coloured nymphs seen on under surface leaves feed on foliage resulting in skeletonization of leaves. Since nymph are seen in large numbers on a single leaf plucking infested leaves along with nymph  is an effective way control of pest.
Five sprays of cipermethrin @ 30 g a.i./ha or ethofenprox @ 75 g a.i/ at 15 days interval starting from 30 DAT is effecti.ve for control of jassi and fruit and shoot borer. Four sprays of carbaryl (800 g a.i/ha) at days interval starting from 30 DAT is also equally effective for control· pest.
Mites
Red spider mites and other mites seen on under surface of leaf suck sap and cause characteristic yellowing. Spray of neem oil garlic solution in initial stage of attack is effective for control of mites. Under severe infestation spray Kelthane (0.03%) or metasystox (0.03%).
Diseases
Diseases Bacterial wilt Fusarian wilt, phomopsis blight, little leaf, mosaic and damping off are the major diseases.
Bacterial wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum)
Disease results in sudden wilting and drying up of plants. Plants are more affected during flowering and early fruiting stages. Grow resistant varieties like Swetha, Haritha, Arka Nidhi, Arka Neelkant, Pant Samrat, Utkal Tarini, Utkal Madhuri and F1 hybrid Neelima in wilt prone areas.
Fungal wilt
Fungi like Fusarium and Verticillium cause wilting of plants. Lower leaves turn yellow and progress slowly leading to  browning and complete death of plants. Pythium and Phytophthora also cause collar rot and wilting of plants. Crop rotation burning with dry leaves prior to planting and drenching  the soil with copper oxychloride are effective for control of wilt.
Phomopsis blight
This is a major disease particularly when crop is raised for seed production. Soft and water soaked brown lesions of fruits which turn black and mummified in appearance are the common symptoms. Leaves and stem may also develop dark brown sports. Seed treatment with Bavistin (l g a.i./kg) and seedling dip in Bavistin (0.05%) for 30 minutes before transplanting, followed by two sprays of Bavistin are recommended for control of disease.
Little leaf:

Diseased plants produce small sized leaves and result in bushy and stunted growth and will not produce fruits.
Mosaic
Uproot and destroy mosaic and little leaf affected plants as soon as symptoms are noticed. Avoiding ratooning and raising seedlings in seed beds treated with Phorate (1.25 kg a.i./ha), treating seedlings with systemic insecticides for eight hours followed by application of Phorate (1.25 kg a.i./ha) at 21 DAT control both little leaf and mosaic.
Damping off
This is a major nursery disease. Affected seedlings topple over and die in patches. For reducing disease incidence sow seeds as loose/ thin as possible on raised beds. Adequate drainage are drenching nursery bed with Bavistin (0.1 %) control disease effectively.
******

1. Origin of brinjal
a. India            b. China           c. Sri Lanka     d. America
2. Fruit set is high in
a. Long style                b. Medium style          c. Short style   d. Pseudoshort style
3. Cross pollination is due to —————–
4. Annamalai brinjal is resistant to
a. Aphid                       b. Jassid          c. Fruit borer   d. Bacterial wilt
5. Solanum species used for fruit and leaves ——————–

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Origin, area, production, varieties, package of practices for bhendi (Syn: Lady’s finger, Bhindi) (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench) (2n = 130) (Hindi: Bhendi)

Pests and Diseases

• This variety was evolved at Agricultural College and Research Institute, Madurai, TNAU, by gamma irradiation of the seeds of Pusa Sawani.
• The fruits are light green in colour with long stylar end.
• The plants are compact with close arrangement of nodes.
• It is also susceptible to yellow vein mosaic disease.
• Yield is 10-11 tonnes/ha.

• Developed by ANGRAU and released for cultivation in the state during 1983.
• Plant height 120-150cm with occasional branching tendency.
• Fruits are slender, long, and green and five ridged.
• Tolerant to yellow Vein mosaic virus (YVMV).

• It was released by ANGRAU. The plant is vigorous, branching.
• Fruits are small 6-8 cm long suitable for canning and export.
• Tolerant to yellow vein mosaic.

• This was developed at Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhaina fruits are dark green in colour and each fruit weighs 20g.
• It tolerates yellow vein mosaic to certain extent under field conditions.

• This is a pure line selection from Hyderabad “Red Wonder”.
• The fruits are pinkish red in colour.
• It has got a yield potential of 12 tonnes/ha.
• It is susceptible to yellow vein mosaic disease.
• It was developed at the Department of Horticulture, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.

• It is a F1 hybrid developed at the vegetable department of the College of Horticulture, TNAU, Coimbatore.
• The fruits are very long 22-25 cm. thick with 7-8 edges and light green in colour.
• It has a yield potential of 15-16 tones/ha.
• However it is highly susceptible to yellow vein mosaic disease and hence cannot be recommended for growing during summer season.
• Because of its bigger fruit size it can be used for preparation of dehydrated products.

• It is an F1 Hybrid between Prabhani Kranti and MDU 1 and has a yield potential of 16-18 tones/ha.
• It is moderately resistant to yellow vein mosaic.
• Suitable for growing during kharif as well as summer.
• It was developed at Dept. of Olericulture, Horticultural College and Research Institute, TNAU, Coimbatore

*********** 1. Largest producer of okra in the world?

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Origin, area, production, varieties, package of practices for Cucurbitaceous vegetables

Crops belonging to family Cucurbitaceae are generally known as ‘Cucurbits’.  It consists of a wide range of vegetables either used for salad purpose (cucumber) or for cooking (all gourds), pickling (West Indian gherkin) or as dessert fruit (muskmelon, water melon) or candied or preserved (ash gourd).  As a group, cucurbits occupy the largest area in India and in other tropical countries.  Its use is not primarily because of calories, minerals or vitamins since they are generally low to moderate in nutrients with a few exceptions like bitter gourd (rich in vitamin C 96 mg/100g), parwal and chow chow (calcium – 531 mg and 140 mg / 100 g respectively).  From the nutritional point of view, cucurbit seeds are valued for their high oil and protein contents.  Seed proteins of cucurbits are comparable to that of legumes and are richer in methionine.
Taxonomic classification of the family is differently by botanists.  The family Cucurbitaceae comprises about 117 genera and 825 species in warmer parts.  Chakravarthy (1982) estimated 36 genera and 100 species in India.
General features
Cucurbit vegetables have the following common features:

1. Long tap root system – Tap root may grow up to 175-180 cm and laterals are confined to top 60 cm.  Hence crops like bottle gourd, ash gourd and parwal are largely utilized in river bed cultivation.
2.  Branched stem-Stem is 3-8 branched and prostrate / climbing and spread up to 9-10 m in Cucurbita and Lagenaria.  Crops like Cucurbita pepo have short internodes and are bushy.  Nodes usually produce roots by touching on soil
3. Leaves are simple, mostly 3-5 lobed, palmate and rarely pinnately lobed (Citrullus sp.).
4. Tendrils on axils of leaves are simple in Cucumis, simple or bifid in others and absent in bush types.
5. Cucurbits are highly cross pollinated and pollination is done by honey bees and bumble bees.  Flowers are born in axils of leaves and are solitary or in racemose clusters.  Individual flowers are unisexual, large and showy.
6. Fruit is essentially an inferior berry and is called as “pep” due to hard rind when mature.  Fruits can be stored for long period in ash gourd, pumpkin, oriental pickling melon, etc. while keeping quality is less in cucumber, snake gourd, bitter gourd, etc.  The fruits of all cucurbits except chow chow are many seeded.
7. Seeds are borne in parietal placentation-Placenta is the edible portion in water melon while in ash gourd, ridge gourd and smooth gourd it is endocarp.  In muskmelon, edible portion is mostly pericarp with a little mesocarp.
8. Cucurbits are mostly seed propagated.  A few are vegetative propagated like parwal and coccinia.
9. Most cucurbits are annuals except chow chow and coccinia, both having perennial habit.
10. Cucurbitacins – Majority of cucurbits are characterized by presence of bitter principles, cucurbitacins at some portions of plant and at some stages of development.  Cucurbitacins are tetracyclic triterpins having extensive oxidation levels.  Its highest concentration is in fruits and roots and is less in leaves.  Pollen grain also carries fairly good amount of bitter principles.  This is a common problem in oriental pickling melon, cucumber and bottle gourd and is rarely noticed in ridge gourd and snake gourd.  The consumers usually remove fruit tips during conception to avoid possible chance of bitterness in fruits.
11. Sex forms – A wide range of sex forms like monoecious, andro monoecious, gynandro monoecious and dioecious forms are noticed in the family.

• Hermaphrodite form – This is the most primitive form and bisexual flowers only are produced in a plant.  This is noticed in Satputia variety of ridge gourd and in a few lines of cucumber and mush melon.
• Monoecious form – This is the advanced form and plants produce both male and female flowers in a plant.  Majority of the cucurbits exhibit monoecious condition.
• Andromonoecious form – Muskmelon and some cultivars of water melon produce both male and bisexual flowers in a plant.  However, non dessert forms like oriental pickling melon, photo under Cucumis melo are monoecious.
• Gynomonoecious – This is noticed in cucumber and the plants produce female and bisexual flowers.
• Gynoecious form -Lines producing female flowers alone are rarely noticed in cucumber and have got great potential for commercial F1 production.
• Trimonoecious form– This is a condition wherein, the male, female and bisexual flowers are produced in a single plant
• Dioecious form – Male and female flowers are produced on separate plants in parwal, coccinia and kakrol.

Flowering
Majority of cucurbits start flowering 30-45 days after sowing and it follows a definite sequence.  An alternate sequence of male and female flowers follows upto fruit set.  The first 4-6 flowering nodes bear male flowers and alter female flowers.  Developing fruits in a vine determine production of further female flowers further down in the vine.  In crops where immature fruits are harvested at tender stage, this kind of inhibiting mechanism will not be perceptible.  But in melon, pumpkin, ash gourd etc. even if perfect or female flowers are produced in the vine, fruits may not set or develop fully or shed in immature condition.  That is why number of fruits / vine in a seed crop will be less (4-5) than in a vegetable crop (12-15) in bottle gourd, ash gourd and cucumber.
Pollination
            Pollination takes place early in morning between 6-8 am in cucumber, pumpkin, muskmelon and watermelon.  Pollination is altered in the day when temperature is high in bottle gourd and ridge gourd.  In snake gourd and pointed gourd, anthesis takes place during night and pollination early in the morning.
In pumpkin, pollen production is more while in muskmelon, pollen production is scanty and pollen grains are sticky due to oily film surrounding them.
Extent of cross pollination in cucurbits is 60-80%.  They are entomophilous and bees, beetles and moths cause pollination.
Sex modification
Majority of cucurbits are monoecious and sex ratio (male: female) ranges from   25-30:1 to 15:1.  Sex ratio is influenced by environmental factors. High N content in the soil, long days and high temperature favour maleness.  Besides environmental factors, endogenous levels of auxins, gibberellins, ethylene and abscisic acid also determine sex ratio and sequence of flowering.  A primordium can form either a female or a male flower and it can be manipulated by addition or deletion of auxins.  Endogenous application of plant growth regulators can alter sex form, if applied at 2-4 leaf stage.  High ethylene level induces female sex and is suggested to increase female flowers in cucumber, musk melon, summer squash and pumpkin. In cucumber, maleic hydrazide (50-100 ppm) GA 3 (5-10 ppm), Ethrel (150-200 ppm), TIBA (25-50 ppm), boron (3 ppm) also induce female flowers.
Gibberellins promote maleness and are antagonistic to the action of ethylene and abscisic acid.  In fact, gynoecious line of cucumber is maintained by inducing male flowers through spray of GA 3 (1500-2000 ppm). Silver nitrate (300-400 ppm) also induces maleness.

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Origin, area, production, varieties, package of practices for RIDGE GOURD
Ridge Gourd (Luffa acutangula Roxb.) (2n = 26) (Hindi : Ghia tori) &
Smooth Gourd (Luffa cylindrica Roem.) (2n = 26) (Hindi: Kali tori)

Both ridge or ribbed gourd and smooth or sponge gourd belong to genus Luffa.  Genus name was derived from the product “Loofah” used as bathing sponges, scrubber pads, doormats, pillows, mattresses, cleaning utensils, etc.  Both species contain a gelatinous compound called luffein.
            Both crops are cultivated on a commercial scale and grown in homesteads for its immature fruits which are used as cooked vegetable.  Fibre of mature dry fruits is used as a bath sponge.  As tender fruits are easily digestible and appetizing, it is prescribed for those who are suffering from malaria and other seasonal fevers.

	Luffa acutangula
Luffa cylindrica

 Origin and distribution
Origin of ridge gourd is not known.  Smooth gourd may be a native of South Asia or Africa or Australia.
Varieties-Ridge gourd

            Satputia is a cultivar in Bihar which is hermaphrodite and produces pale green small fruits in clusters.  In each cluster 5-7 fruits are produced.  Yield is 20-25 t/ha.
Varieties – Sponge gourd

Climate and soil
Like bitter gourd, ridge gourd and smooth gourd are typical warm season crops and come up well during summer and rainy seasons.  Optimum temperature required is 25-27oC. Ideal soil is fertile well drained loam rich in humus.
Cultivation practices
Both ridge and smooth gourd are grown during summer and rainy season by sowing seeds during January – February and June – July, respectively.  Seeds are sown in raised beds, furrows or pits @ 3.5-5.0 kg/ha for ridge gourd and 2.5-5.0 kg/ha for sponge gourd.  Since seeds are with hard seed coat, it is advisable to soak seeds overnight in water.  A row-to-row distance of 1.5-2.5 m and hill to hill distance of 60-120 cm is required for both crops under bower or trellis system.  When it is trailed to ground under pit system, a row-to-row spacing of 1.5-2.0 m and pit-to-pit distance of 1.0-1.5 m are recommended for both crops.
Manure and fertilizer requirements, irrigation and intercultural operations are same as that of bitter gourd.
Harvesting
Crop is ready for harvest in about 60 days after sowing.  Both crops are picked at immature tender stage.  Fruits attain marketable maturity 5-7 days after anthesis.  Over-mature fruits will be fibrous and are unfit for consumption.  To avoid over-maturity, picking is done at 3-4 days interval.  Harvested fruits are packed in baskets to avoid injury and can be kept for 3-4 days in a cool atmosphere.
Yield: 7-5 – 15.0 t/ha.
Pests and Diseases of Cucurbits
Cucurbits are affected by a large number of insect pests, nematodes and diseases.  Major pests and diseases affecting cucurbit vegetables are discussed below:

Pests
            Fruit fly, red pumpkin beetle and epilachna beetle cause damage to most of cucurbits.  In addition, insects like gall fly; aphids, leaf hopper, ants, worms, underground semi loopers, leaf miners, fruit borers and mites affect specific cucurbits.  Intensity of infestation varies from place to place.
Fruit fly (Bacterocera cucurbitae)
            This is a major pest of majority of cucurbits especially that of bitter gourd, snake gourd, pointed gourd, muskmelon, oriental pickling melon, watermelon, tinda and pumpkin.  Adult fly has reddish brown body with transparent and shiny wings, bearing yellow-brown streaks.  It lays eggs singly or in clusters of 4-12 in flower or developing fruits or ripening fruits with the help of sharp ovipositor of females.  Eggs hatch in 2-9 days and maggots feed on internal contents of fruits causing rotting.  Pupation is in ground at a depth of 1.5-15.0 cm.  Infestation is more during rainy season.
            Adopt following package for control of fruit fly:

1. Cover developing fruits with paper cover or polythene cover immediately after anthesis and pollination.
2. Collect and destroy affected fruits by dipping in hot water or insecticide solution.  Do not leave infested fruits on gourd.
3. Use light trap and poison baits during night.  Spray a bait solution containing   200 g gur or sugar and 20 ml Malathion 50 EC in 20 1 of water as coarse droplets on lower surface of leaves.
4. Spraying on under surface of leaves of maize plants grown in rows at a distance of 8-10 m in cucurbit field is also effective as flies rest on such tall plants.
5. Hang baits containing sex attractants like pheromones or protein hydrolysate with Furadan granules.  Hanging coconut shells with pieces of fully ripened fruits of “Mysore poovan” banana or toddy or molasses along with Furadan granules also attract and kill fruit flies.

Red Pumpkin Beetle (Aulacophora foveicollis)
Beetle attacks most of cucurbits especially melons, bottle gourd, pumpkin, cucumber, water melon etc.  Bitter gourd is not seen attacked by beetle.  Beetles eat the leaf lamina causing defoliation particularly at cotyledon stage of crop.  Grubs feed on underground stem and root portion of plants causing holes / galleries and result in drying up of plants. As insects pupate in the soil, deep ploughing soon after the crop exposes and kills grubs and pupae.
Application of Furadan 3 G granules 3-4 cm deep in soil near base of just germinated seedlings will take care of young seedlings from attack of beetle.
Epilachna beetle (Epilachna seplima)
Epilachna beetle is a serious pest of bitter gourd and snake gourd.  Adult flies feed on foliage causing holes and defoliation.  A large number of yellow coloured thorny grubs are seen on under surface of leaves and feed on chlorophyll resulting in skeletonisation of leaves.  Mechanical control by way of collection and destruction of egg masses and grubs are very effective as they are seen as a colony.  It can also be controlled by spraying Carbaryl (0.2%) or Metacystox (0.15%).
Aphids (Aphis gossypii)
Aphids suck sap from leaves of cucurbits like ash gourd, snake gourd, mush melon, water melon, cucumber etc. causing crinkling of leaves.  It also transmits mosaic virus.  Control aphids by spraying Malathion (0.1%) or tobacco decoction
Leaf hopper (Amrasca biguttula biguttula)
During summer months, jassids cause heavy loss to bitter gourd crop.  Green coloured hopper and its nymphs are seen in large numbers on under surface of leaves and suck sap causing typical hopper burn symptoms.  Initially neem oil garlic mixture at fortnightly interval is effective for control of hopper.  Spraying of Acetaf, Imidachloprid etc. control hoppers effectively.
Red spider mites (Tetranychus sp.)
Larvae, nymphs and adults of mites lacerate leaves from under surface and suck sap resulting in production of white patches between veins in Cucurmis melo.  Infested leaves turn yellow and fall of prematurely.  In severe cases, intense webbing occurs giving a dusty appearance to under surface of leaves.  Mites can be controlled by spray of neem oil garlic mixture or Kelthane or Dicofol on under surface of the leaves.
Leaf miner (Lyriomyza trifolii)
This polyphagous pest causes characteristic white twisting lines in ash gourd, Cucurmis sativus and Cucurmis melo.  Severe leaf mining accelerates leaf drop and retards growth and yield of plants.  Mated females puncture leaves and lays eggs in leaf tissues.  After hatching, larvae start feeding in palisade mesophyll cells of leaves while moving inside.  Mines start from margins of leaves and progress towards centre.  Yellow larvae can be seen at the end of mines.  Larval duration is 4-6 days.  When larva is ready to pupate, it cuts a semicircular slit on leaf surface and fall down on ground.  Larvae emerge from leaves during early morning before 8.00 a.m.  For control of miner, trap adults to yellow cards applied with adhesives. Burning infested dried leaves will help in reduction of population.  Spraying neem oil garlic mixture early in morning before sunrise will be an effective control.
Gall fly (Lasioptera falcate)
Gall flies, having shape of mosquitoes, lay eggs in soft stem of bitter gourd, snake gourd, coccinia etc.  Emerging larva feed inside stem.  Since large numbers of larvae are seen inside stem, affected portion becomes bulged and subsequent growth of stem is arrested.  Restrict irrigation and nitrogen fertilizers once infestation is noticed.  Cutting and removal of galls also should be practiced regularly.  Spray systemic insecticides under sever infestation.
Diseases
Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum)
Fusarium wilt is a serious disease water melon, musk melon, bottle gourd etc.  In young seedlings, cotyledons drop and wither.  Older plants wilt suddenly and vascular bundles at the collar region show brown discolouration.  Being a soil borne disease, chemical control is very difficult.  Cultivation of resistant varieties and crop rotation with resistant crops are viable methods for overcoming the disease.  To some extent, the disease can be checked by hot water treatment of seeds at 55oC for 15 minutes and by drenching soil with carbendazim.
Collar rot (Rhizoctonia solanii) / Pythium rot (Pythium sp.)
Characteristic symptom of the disease is appearance of dark brown water-soaked lesions girdling the base of stem at soil level followed by death of plants.  It is more serious under water logged conditions and during rainy seasons.  Treating seeds with Thiram @ 3 g/kg of seed before sowing, sowing of seeds on raised beds, drenching vines with Redomyl (0.2%) or Carbendazim (0.1%) are recommended for control of the disease.
Powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca fuliginea)
This disease is more destructive in pumpkin, squashes, bottle gourd, melon and cucumber, that too, during rain free periods.  Symptoms appear as white to dirty grey spots or patches on leaves which become white powdery as they enlarge.  Powdery coating covers entire plant parts and causes defoliation.  Fortnightly spray of Karathane (0.5%) or Calixin (0.05%) or Carbendazim (0.1%) are recommended for control of powdery mildew.
Downy mildew (Pseudoperonospora cubensis)
Disease is prevalent in areas of high humidity, especially during rainy season, on crops like bitter gourd, snake gourd, melon, bottle gourd and ridge gourd.  Symptoms appear as water soaked lesions on under surface of leaf lamina and angular spots on upper surface corresponding to the water-soaked lesions on under surface.  Disease spreads very fast.  Plucking and destruction of affected leaves and spraying Dithane M-45 (0.2%) on under surface of leaves give effective control.
Anthracnose (Colletotrichum lagenarium)
This disease is endemic in warm and humid conditions where rainfall and humidity are high.  Cucurbits like watermelon, bottle gourd, cucumber and snake gourd are more susceptible to disease.  Different types of symptoms are observed on leaves, petioles, stem and fruits.  Symptoms on young fruits appear in the form of numerous water soaked depressed oval spots, which coalesce covering large areas.  Under humid conditions, pink masses of spores can be seen in centre of these spots.  Pink gummy exudation may also be seen on lesions due to exudation of spores.  Symptoms on vines occur as brownish specks which grow into angular to circular spots.  Girdling of affected portion leads to general blight symptoms.  Clean cultivation and crop rotation minimize disease incidence.  Treating seeds with Carbendazim @ 25 g/kg of seed and spraying crop at 10 days intervals with Indofil M-45 (0.35%).  Benomyl or Carbendazim (0.1%) gives effective control.
Alternaria blight and fruit rot (Alternaria cucumerina)
This is a serious disease under warm and humid conditions in crops like musk melon, water melon, bottle gourd, snake gourd, cucumber and pumpkin.  Symptoms appear as yellow spots on leaves which turn brown and finally turn black on aging.  They usually start from margins and produce concentric rings.  Severely affected vines look like burnt charcoal.  Use of disease free seeds, clean cultivation and crop rotation are effective for control of disease.  Spray of 0.25% Indofil M-45 at 10-15 days interval is effective for disease control.
Mosaic
Viral disease are causing extensive damage to different cucurbits like pumpkin and squashes, water melon, ridge gourd, bitter gourd, ash gourd, melon, cucumber and coccinia.  Viral diseases are becoming serious due to intensive and continuous cultivation of a crop with indiscriminate use of plant protection chemicals.  Several viruses like aphid transmitted cucumber mosaic virus, watermelon mosaic viruses like aphid transmitted cucumber mosaic virus, watermelon mosaic virus, mechanically transmissible tobacco virus group, non sap transmissible but white fly transmissible yellow vein mosaic virus etc. cause malformation and damage to plants.  Symptoms expressed by host plant vary with virus and crop.  Mosaic mottling, curling and twisting of leaves, shortening of internodes, stunted growth are common symptoms and vegetative growth, flowering and productivity are adversely affected once crop is infected.
Complete control of the diseases is not possible.  Adoption of practices like collection of seeds from healthy virus free plants, seed treatment with hot air (70oC for 2 days) or hot water (55oC for 60 minutes), clean cultivation and removal of alternate hosts particularly weeds, avoiding relay cropping of susceptible crops, prophylactic spray of organic pesticides, control of vectors by spraying insecticides, use of biocontrol agents, cultivation of tolerant / resistant varieties, avoiding cropping during mosaic prone season and areas, either alone or in combination have to be tried for raising a mosaic free crop.  Selection of methods for control of viral diseases should be based on intensity of infection, mode of transmission, etc.
Nematodes
Cucurbits are highly susceptible to nematode infestation particularly of root knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita acrita.  Symptoms include premature leaf fall, wilting and decline in growth and fruit production.  Roots of infected plants show typical galls / knots.  Cultivation of resistant varieties, crop rotation with non-host plants, successive deep ploughing during hot weather, soil solarization with polythene sheets and soil fumigation with nematicides are advocated for control of root knot nematode.
Application of fertilizers in Tamil Nadu
Apply 10 kg of FYM, 100 g of NPK 6:12:12 g mixture as basal per pit and N @ 10 g per pit 30 days after sowing.
*********

1. The word Luffa is originated from _________ because of its sponge characteristics.

1. The optimum temperature for the growth of ridge gourd is ____0C

1. ______ is a variety of ridge gourd which is moderately resistant to downy mildew

1. ______ is a super long variety of ridge gourd

1. A total number of _______ harvest can be done at an interval of 5-7 days in ribbed gourd

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Origin, area, production, varieties, package of practices for ASH GOURD

Ash Gourd (Wax Gourd) (Benincasa hispida Cong.) (2n = 24) (Hindi): Petha)
Ash gourd is cultivated for its immature as well as mature fruits which are used as a cooked vegetable and are used in confectionary and ayurvedic medicinal preparations.  The delicacy ‘Petha’ made out of ash gourd is famous all over India.  A small fruited medicinal ash gourd is also grown in Kerala.  The famous ayurvedic preparation ‘Kooshmanda rasayana’ is made of ash gourd fruits.  Ash gourd is good for people suffering from nervousness.
Origin and distribution
Crop originated in Asia specifically in Java and Japan.  It is grown throughout old world tropics and is less common in new world tropics.  In India, the crop is widely grown in UP and Delhi for preparation of ‘Agra petha’ and in southern states for use as vegetable.
Botany
Genus Benincasa is monotypic and the only species is B. hispida.  Wild forms do not exist in this species.  Ash gourd is diploid with 2n=24.  It is a vigorous but slow growing trailing annual.  Due to long tap root system, ash gourd is considered as an ideal crop for river bed cultivation.  Stem and all other parts are covered with bristle-like hairs.  This monoecious crop produces large male flowers with long pedicels and female flowers with densely haired ovary and short peduncle on same plant.  Corolla is yellow in colour and large in size.  Ratio of staminate to pistillate flowers is 34:1.  Anthesis takes place at 4.30 – 7.30 a.m. and anther dehiscence is at
3.00 – 5.00 a.m.  Stigma is receptive from 8 hours before to 18 hours after anthesis.

Variety
Variability in ash gourd is limited except for size and shape of fruits.  The improved varieties are:

            In addition to above open pollinated varieties, a few F1 hybrids like MAH 1; MHAG 2 etc. are developed under private sector in the country.
Climate
Ash gourd is a warm season crop and is susceptible to frost.  The crop comes up very well in humid and high rainfall areas also.  The ideal temperature for growth and production is 24-30oC.
Season
In areas, where winter is mild, crop is grown throughout the year.  As a rainfed crop, it is sown by May in Kerala and by June-July in Tamil Nadu.  In North India, it is mainly grown during summer and rainy seasons.

Cultivation
Growth and cultivation practices like spacing, fertilizer requirement and irrigation are similar to that of pumpkin.
Germination and fruit set are better, when 3-4 months old seeds are used for sowing than fresh seeds.  Initial growth of ash gourd plant is slow when compared to pumpkin.  Hence, fast growing and short duration crops like cucumber, oriental pickling melon etc. can be grown as intercrops along with ash gourd.
Seed rate recommended is 0.75 – 1.0 kg/ha under pit system in Kerala and 5.0 kg/ha under furrow system in North Indian conditions.  If fruits are harvested at tender stage at frequent intervals, apply fertilizer in more splits as top-dressing.
Harvest
Fruits are harvested at immature and fully mature stages depending on demand in each locality.  Immature fruits are harvested one week after anthesis and harvesting is done at weekly intervals.  Mature fruits for storage, long distance transport and for seed extraction are harvested after full development of waxy coating on fruit surface.
Yield               10-15 t/ha when fruits are harvested at mature stage.
25-30 t/ha when fruits are harvested at immature stage.
Seed production
Follow common procedure of cucurbits for seed production.  For seed purpose, fruits are allowed to mature till vines and fruits stalks are completely dried.  It is advisable to preserve the fruits for 2-3 months before extraction of seeds.  Seeds along with placenta are scooped out from cut fruits and allowed to ferment overnight.  Seeds are then washed in running water and allowed to dry till 8% moisture content.  Germination of seeds extracted from freshly harvested fruits is very low.  To avoid the dormancy factor, fruits as such or seeds after extraction are preserved for 2-3 months before sowing.  Seed yield is 175-200 kg/ha.
Application of fertilizers:  Apply 10 kg FYM per pit and 100 g of NPK 6:12:12 mixture/pit and 10g N/pit 30 days after sowing.
********

1. Botanical name of Ash gourd

1. _________ is the common native confectionary prepared from ash gourd in North India

1. Ash gourd is predominantly a                crop

1. In ash gourd, the sex ratio varies from __________

1. The maturity indices for harvesting wax gourd is

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Origin, area, production, varieties, package of practices for BOTTLE GOURD

Bottle Gourd –  Lagenaria siceraria (Mol.) Standl. (2n = 22) (Hindi: Lauki)
Bottle gourd is extensively grown in India and fruits are available throughout the year.  The name bottle gourd is due to bottle like shape of fruit and its use as a container in the past.  Fruits at tender stage are used as a cooked vegetable and for preparation of sweets and pickles.  Hard shells of mature fruits are used as water jugs, domestic utensils, floats for fishing nets, etc.  As a vegetable it is easily digestible.  It has cooling effect and has diuretic and cardiotonic properties.  Fruit pulp is used as an antidote against certain poisons and is good for controlling constipation, night blindness and cough.  A decoction made out of leaf is taken for curing jaundice.  Seeds are used in dropsy.
Origin
Originated in tropical Africa, the crop is domesticated in Asia, Africa and New World.
Botany           

Bottle gourd is a climbing annual with a duration of 3 ½ to 4 months.  Flowers are solitary, chalky white in colour and open at night.  Fruits are fleshy and vary in shape and size.

 Varieties

* Varieties released / identified by AICRP (Vegetables)
Heterosis
A good number of F1 hybrids, Pusa Meghdoot, Pusa Manjari, Pusa Hybrid 3 and Pant Sankar Lauki 1 were developed in public sector in bottle gourd.  F1 hybrid Varad (MGH 4) developed by Mahyco, Jalna yields 60-65 t/ha.  It has cylindrical bright green, 40-45 cm long fruits weighing 600-750 g.
Climate
Bottle gourd is a typical warm season vegetable.  Though crop tolerates cool climate better than musk melon and water melon, it cannot tolerate frost.  Well drained fertile silt loam is ideal for cultivation of bottle gourd.  Crop is quite suitable for river bed cultivation because of its deep tap root system. A deep soil supports vines for a long period.
Season
Crop is grown during summer and rainy season.  In places where water is not scarce, it is grown throughout the year.
Land preparation and sowing

            Land preparation and sowing are similar to that of ash gourd.  Land is ploughed to a fine tilth and furrows are made at a distance of 2.0-3.0 m.  After incorporating farmyard manure, seeds are sown in furrows at a distance of 1.0-1.5 m between plants.  When bottle gourd is trained on bower, follow a spacing of 3.0 x 1.0 m.  In sloppy land, sowing is done in pits with 2-3

plants / pit.  Soaking seeds 12-24 hours in water or in succinic acid (600 ppm) for 12 hours improves germination.  Seed rate recommended is 3-6 kg/ha.
Training and pruning
As bottle gourd puts forth good vegetative growth, proper training and pruning are advantageous.  Training plants to bower helps to tap sunlight more effectively and yield as high as 80 t/ha was obtained.  Axillary buds of growing vines should be removed till vines reach the bower height.  When vine reaches bower, apical bud is removed at 10-15 cm below bower to allow 2 or 3 branches to spread on bower.  After formation of 4-5 fruits, vines are again pruned allowing 2-3 axillary buds only to grow on primary vines.  It is also advisable to remove all yellow and pale coloured older leaves near bottom portion.
Interculture
Bottle gourd is highly responsive to heavy application of manures and fertilizers.  Follow fertilizer package and interculture operations as that of ash gourd and bitter gourd.
Harvesting
Fruits are harvested at tender stage when it grows to one third to half.  Fruits attain edible maturity 10-12 days after anthesis and are judged by pressing on fruit skin and noting pubescence persisting on skin.  At edible maturity seeds are soft.  Seeds become hard and flesh turn coarse and dry during aging.  Tender fruits with cylindrical shape are preferred in market.  Harvesting starts 55-60 days after sowing and is done at 3-4 days intervals.  While harvesting, care should be taken to avoid injury to vines as well as to fruits.  Plucking of individual fruits is done with sharp knives by keeping a small part of fruit stalk along with fruit.  Average yield is 20-25 t/ha for open pollinated varieties and 40-50 t/ha for F1 hybrids.
Fruits can be stored for 3-5 days under cool and moist condition.  For export purpose, fruits are packed in polythene bags and bags are kept in boxes of 50-100 kg capacity.
Application of fertilizers in Tamil Nadu
Apply 10 kg of FYM (20 t/ha) 100 g of NPK 6:12:12 mixture as basal and 10 g of N per pit 30 days after sowing.
********

1. The origin of bottle gourd is

1. After drying _______vegetable is used as domestic utensils

1. Among the cucurbits _______ is most drought hardy crop

1. The average yield of bottle gourd varies from _________ t/ha

1. The maturity indices for harvesting bottle gourd is

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Origin, area, production, varieties, package of practices for BITTER GOURD
(Syn: Bitter cucumber, Balsam pear)
(Momordica charantia L.) (2n = 22)
(Hindi: Karela)

Bitter gourd is an important vegetable in South Indian states, particularly in Kerala and is grown for its immature tuberculate fruits which have a unique bitter taste.  Fruits are considered as a rich source of vitamins and minerals and 88 mg vitamin C per 100 g.  Fruits are used after cooking and delicious preparations are made after stuffing and frying.  During periods of glut in market, fruits are sliced, partially boiled with salt and dried under direct sunlight and stored for months.  This is used after frying.  Bitter gourd fruits have medicinal value and are used for curing diabetes, asthma, blood diseases and rheumatism.  Drinking fresh bitter gourd juice is recommended by naturopaths.  Roots and stem of wild bitter gourd are used in many ayurvedic medicines.
Origin and distribution
Bitter gourd is of old world origin and is a native of tropical Asia, particularly in the Indo Burma region.  It is widely grown in India, Indonesia, Malaysia, China and tropical Africa.
Botany
Genus Momordica, to which bitter gourd belongs, has the following four species in India.
M. charantia (cultivated bitter gourd)
M. charantia var. muricata (Highly bitter and small fruited wild bitter gourd)
M. dioica (kakrol, spine gourd)
          M. cochinchinensis (sweet gourd of Assam)
M. balsamina – Immature fruits are used as vegetable or picked.
All the species have 2n=2x=28.

Momordica cochinchinensis

M. charantia is propagated through seeds and is monoecious .M. dioica and M. cochinchinensis are propagated through underground tubers and are dioecious in nature.  Both species have small fruits covered with spines.  Ram (2002) reported main difference between the two species.

          Bitter gourd is a monoecious annual climber with duration of 100-120days.  Leaves are palmately 5-9 lobed.  Flowers are axillary with long pedicel and are yellow in colour.  Stamens are 5 in number with free filaments and united anthers.  Stigma is divided.  Fruit is pendulous, fusiform, ribbed with numerous tubercles.  Bitterness of fruit is due to the presence of an alkaloid, Momordicin.  Anthesis is from 4.00 a.m. to 7.00 a.m.  Anther dehiscence takes place in between 5.00 a.m. and 7.30 a.m.  Stigma is receptive 24 hours before and after anthesis.

  Varieties
          Consumer preferences in bitter gourd vary from region to region depending on size, colour, presence or absence of tubercles / ridges and bitterness of fruits.  Accordingly a number of varieties are developed in India and details are furnished below:

Climate and soil
Bitter gourd is a warm season crop with wide adaptability.  Ideal temperature for its growth and flowering is 25-30oC.  Crop can be grown even in places of slightly lower temperature and high rainfall areas.  Production of female flowers, fruit set and growth of plant are seen affected above 35oC and will be susceptible to viral infections.  As seeds have a hard seed coat, germination is affected below 10oC.
Well drained and fertile sandy loam or silt loam is ideal for the crop.
Season
In hills, the crop is sown during April-May.  In plains where season is early, bitter gourd is sown during January-March in states like Rajasthan and Bihar.  In states where winter is late and prolonged, sowing is done in February-March.  In areas where winter is mild, crop is sown throughout the year.  In Kerala, when bitter gourd is grown in an intensive way, sowing is done during January-February for summer crop, May-June for kharif crop and September for rabi crop.
Kakrol and sweet gourd are normally grown during rainy season in fertile soil rich in humus.  Performance is better under partially shaded condition.
Land preparation and sowing
Preparation of land, sowing and other cultural practices for bitter gourd is similar to that of cucumber except that bitter gourd is trained to bower or cut branches of trees.  In Kerala, the crop is cultivated in an intensive way.  Land is ploughed to a fine tilth and pits of 60 cm diameter and 30-45 cm depth are made at a spacing of 2.0-2.5 x 2.0 – 2.5 m.  well rotten farmyard manure @ 20-25 t/ha is applied in pits and filled with top soil up to 3/4th height and 4-5 seeds are sown in each pit @ 5.0-6.0 kg/ha.
Since bitter gourd seeds have a hard seed coat, soak 2-3 months old seeds overnight in cold water.  Seeds are then stored in moist cloth and kept for one or two days for germination.  Seeds immediately after germination are sown in pits.  Mechanical scarification is effective for germination of seeds soon after harvest.
Irrigation
Bitter gourd cannot tolerate drought or water stagnation.  Frequent irrigation at   2-5 days interval especially at fruiting stage is necessary for high yield.  Under Kerala condition, crop is irrigated at 3-4 days interval during initial stage and at alternate days during fruiting.
Manures and fertilizer application
In addition to 20-25 t/ha of farmyard manure, a fertilizer dose of 70 kg N, 25 kg P2O5 and 25 kg K2O / ha is recommended by Kerala Agricultural University.  Initial dose of farmyard manure is applied in pits and incorporated with top soil.  Apply 1/3rd N and full dose of P and half dose of K either just before sowing or 10-15 days after sowing as basal dose.  ½ K can be applied 45 days after sowing.  Remaining fertilizers can be applied in several split doses (5-6) at fortnightly intervals.  Since bitter gourd is harvested frequently, fertilizer also should be applied in several splits.
Drenching pits with cow dung slurry at fortnightly intervals, top-dressing with poultry manure and organic cakes are practiced by bitter gourd farmers in Kerala.
Application of fertilizers: 
Apply 10 k of FYM per pit (20 t/ha) 100 g of NPK 6:12:12 per pit as basal and 10 g of N per pit 30 days after sowing.

Interculture
Being a shallow rooted crop, deep intercultural operations should be avoided.  Land, particularly pits, should be kept weed-free by frequent hand weeding, hoeing and light earthing up along with application of fertilizers.  Excess lateral branches, if any, may be pinched off for allowing plants to reach bower height at the earliest.  Erect bower when plant starts vining.  Plants may be trailed to bower by erecting small twigs in pits.  Erection of bower or pandal is a costly operation and nearly 20% of cost of production is for making bower alone.  Height of bower is adjusted as 2 m and is usually made of bamboo poles, G1 wire and thin coir or plastic wire.  Bower once erected can be utilized for raising at least three crops.
Plant growth regulators
Application of several plant growth regulators like MH (50-150 ppm), CCC    (50-100 ppm), Ethrel (150 ppm), silver nitrate (3-4 ppm), boron (3-4 mg/ha) at 2-leaf stage and 4 leaf stage increases the female flowers and yield in bitter gourd.  Soaking of seeds with Ethrel or boron (3-4 mg/kg) also increases yield in bitter gourd.
Harvesting
Harvesting starts 55-60 days after sowing.  Picking is done when fruits are fully grown but still young and tender.  Seeds should not be hard at the time of harvest.  From a good crop, 15-20 harvests are possible and harvesting is done twice a week.  If fruits are allowed to ripen on vines, further bearing is adversely affected.
Fruits after harvest are packed in thin gunny bags or directly packed in tempo and marketed.  Since keeping quality of fruits is less, fruits should be marketed without any delay to nearby markets on the same day itself.  Otherwise tubercles will be dropped and freshness and appearance of fruits will be adversely affected.
Yield: 11-25 t/ha.
Seed Production
For seed purpose, fruits are harvested when fruits turn yellow in colour.  Seeds along with red placenta are rubbed against a hard surface and washed in running water and dried under shade.  Seed yield: 200-250 kg/ha.
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1. Mode of pollination in bitter gourd

1. The chromosome number of bitter gourd

1. Pusa Visesh is a variety of bitter gourd suitable for ______ season

1. First harvest in bitter gourd starts from __________

1. Total crop duration of bitter gourd is _______ days after sowing

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Origin, area, production, varieties, package of practices for COLE CROPS CABBAGE
CABBAGE – Brassica oleracea var. capitata Linn
Family: Crucifereae
Chromosome Number: 2n =2x =18
Origin and History
            Cabbage originated from a wild non heading type, ‘Cole wart’ (Brassica oleracea var. sylvestris).  The genus Brassica includes about 100 species, majorities of which are native to the Mediterranean region.  The crop is attributed to Mediterranean centre of origin.  It is also considered that the real headed cabbage was evolved in Germany.  The Savoy cabbage originated in Italy and spread to France and Germany in the sixteenth and seventh centuries.  At present, cabbage is grown in Caribbean countries, Indonesia, Malaysia, Central East and West America. 

Nutritive Value and Uses
             Cabbage leaves are low in calories (27 per cent), fat (0.1 per cent) and carbohydrates (4.6 per cent).  It is good sources of protein (1.3 per cent) which contains all essential amino acids, particularly sulphur containing amino acids.  Cabbage proteins are comparable to pea proteins, in biological value, digestibility and NPU. Cabbage is an excellent source of minerals such as calcium (39 mg), iron (0.8 mg), magnesium (10 mg), sodium (14.1 mg), potassium (114 mg) and phosphorus (44 mg).  It has substantial amounts of β carotene provitamin A), ascorbic acid, riboflavin, niacin and thiamine.  Ascorbic acid content varies from 30-65 mg per 100 g fresh weight.  Cooking or shredding of cabbage and leaving it exposed to air can result in substantial loss of ascorbic acid.  Red cabbage is a rich source of anthocyanin pigments.  Both mono and diacylated cyanidin derivatives have been identified in red cabbage.  Cabbage contains thermo labile sulphur compounds, which evolve sulfurous odours.  The major volatile sulfur compounds (dimethyl disulfide and hydrogen sulfide) of cooked cabbage are derived from a precursor of 1, S methyl cysteine sulfoxide, a free amino acid.  The presence of 2-propenyl isothiocyanate in both white and red cabbage and 3-butenyl isothiocynate in red cabbage has also been reported.
Cabbage is used commonly as vegetables. It is also used for salad mixed in tomato, green chilies, beetroot etc.  Flavour in cabbage leaves is due to the glycoside sinigrin.  Cabbage contains goitrogens which cause enlargement of thyroid glands.  The thioglucosides with their associate enzyme (s) impart the desirable culinary flavour to cabbage, broccoli and cauliflower.  The thioglucosides (sinigrin) are non goitrogenic which depends upon enzymatic hydrolysis in presence of the enzyme (progoitrin and epi-goitrin) is the precursors of an anti thyroid compound called goitrin.  The goitrin is formed subsequent to hydrolysis and then through cyclization of an unstable isothiocyanate containing hydroxyl group.  The total glucosinolate content of white cabbage cultivars ranged from 299-1288 ppm, whereas the goitrin content varied from 1.2 to 26.0 ppm.  Although the enzymatic hydrolytic products from the glucosinolates are goitrogenic, some of these breakdown products have anticancerous properties.  It has also been reported that most of the goitrogen properties of cabbage could be lost during cooking.  Cabbage is well known for its medicinal properties.  In ayurvedic medicine, cabbage leaves are prescribed for cough, fever, skin diseases, peptic ulcers, urinary discharge and hemorrhoids.  Fresh cabbage juice is reported to contain a heat labile antipeptic ulcer component.  A clinical study has indicated that concentrated cabbage juice is significantly effective in healing peptic ulcers.  Cabbage is one of the best sources of a sulphur containing amino acids.  Fresh cabbage juice is reported to have anti bacterial activity and has been shown to inhibit the growth of various strains of lactic acid bacteria.  Cabbage is also reported to have significant anti cancer activity.  Model studies and epidemiological data in humans have confirmed the protective role of cabbage studies and epidemiological data in humans have confirmed the protective role of cabbage on the development of cancer.
Area and production
            India is the third largest cabbage producer in the world.  It is mainly grown in the states like Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Assam, West Bengal, Maharashtra and Karnataka in the country.  Area, production and productivity from 1987-1988 to 1998-99 in India are given in Table – 1.
Table 1
Area, Production and Productivity of Cabbage in India

Source : Horticultural Data Base (2000) NHB Gurgaon.
Productivity of cabbage during 1998-99 was 23.4 t /ha in India which was near to the world average productivity 24.1 t /ha.  The highest productivity was in Tamil Nadu.  The various cabbage growing belts in different states of India are as given below (NHB, 2000)

1. Uttranchal : Almora, Chamoli, Utrkashi and Dehradun
2. Uttar Pradesh Plains
3. Himachal Pradesh
4. Haryana :Hisar, Sonepat, Gurgaon, Ambala, Karnal and Panipat.
5. Rajasthan : Jaipur, Alwar and Ganganagar.
6. Assam
7. Bihar : Patna, Nalanda, West and East Champaran, Muzzafarpur, Vaishali, Bhagalpur, Darbangha and Madhubani
8. Gujarat : ehsana, Khera, Baroda and Gandhinagar.
9. Maharashtra : Nasik and Pune
10. Orissa : Baleshwar, Balangir, Cutak, Dhankanan, Ganijam, Koenjhar and Koraput.
11. Karnataka : Belgaum, Hassan, Belvey, Mysore, Dakshin Kannad and Tamil Nadu (The Nilgiris).

Apart from India, the other major producers in the world are China, Russian Federation, Japan, Korea, Republic, Poland, USA, Indonesia and Ukraine.

Classification
            Bailey (1930) classified the cultivated Oleracea into 7 divisions.
A. The leaf races grown for the open foliage
i) Branching shrubby kales – B. oleracea var. fruticosa
ii) Common biennial mostly unbranching kales- B. oleracea var. acephala.
iii) Low cabbage like Portuguese kales- B. oleracea var. tronchuda.
B. The head races grown for the compact leaf head or buds
iv) Edible product a terminal head, the cabbage- B. oleracea var. capitata.
v) Edible product lateral small heads or buds, the Brussels sprouts- B. oleracea var. gemmifera.
C. The inflorescence races grown for the modified thickened flower shoots of malformed flowers.
vi). Flowers only partially if at all modified- B. oleracea var. italica.
vii). Flowers thickened and malformed into a head or several head- B. oleracea var. botrytis.
Cabbage can also be classified in various ways

1. Place of Origin: (a) B. oleracea var. capitata ssp. mediterranea, e.g. Mediterranean cabbage (b) B. oelracea var. capitata ssp. orientalis, e.g. Oriental cabbage (c). B. oleracea var. capitata ssp. europea. E.g. European cabbage.
2. Botanical Colour and Form of Heads : (a)  B. oleracea var. capitata L.f. alba, e.g. white cabbage (b) B. oelracea var. capitata L.f. rubra, e.g. red cabbage (c) B. oleracea var. sabauda e.g. savoy cabbage.
3. On the Basis of Head Shape (Choudhary, 1976). : (a) Round shape head or ball head type (Golden Acre, Pride of India, Copenhagen Market and Mammoth Rock Red (b)  Flat head or drum head type (Pusa Drum Head) (c) Conical head type (Jersy Wakefield) (d) Savoy type (‘Chieftain’).

Classification Based on the Size and Shape of the Head (Allen, 1914): (a) Wakefield and Winnings Kadt group:- head are small, conical and very early (Jersy Wakefield, Charleston Wakefield). (b) Copenhagen Market group:-round heads, early large head, (Copenhagen Market, Golden Drumhead, Globe, Bonanza). (c) Flat Head or Drumhead group:-heads flattened from both ends (Pusa Drum Head, Early round Dutch, All Head Early, Succession, All Seasons). (d). Savoy group:-leaves are wrinkled; heads are of very high quality, limited commercial use (Drum Head Savoy, Improved American Savoy, and Chieftain). (e) Danish Ball Head group:-leaves are thin, heads compact solid, medium sized, good keeping quality, fine texture (Danish Ball Head, Hollander, Wisconsin Ball Head). (f) Alpha group:-The earliest group head, very small, solid head limited commercial uses, (Miniature Marrow). (g) Volga group:-thick leaves, shining blue coloured leaves, loose bottom (Volga). (h)  Red

1. Cabbage group:-similar to Danish Ball Head except red colour of leaves (Red Rock, Red Dutch, Large Red).

Varieties / Hybrids
Bajrang (BSS-50)
The hybrid has been developed at Beejo Sheetal Seeds Pvt. Ltd., Jalna. Heads are dark green, smooth, highly compact.  The outer leaves are upright.  It matures in 65 days but can stand on the field for 45 days after maturity.  It can tolerate high temperature (up to 36oC) and resistant to fusarium wilt.  Average head weight is one kilogram.
BSS-44
The hybrid has been developed at Beejo Sheetal Seeds Pvt. Ltd., Jalna.  The head is roundish, average weight 2.5 kg and mature in 75 days after transplanting.  But, head can also stand for 20 days in field after maturity.  This hybrid is resistant to fusarium wilt.
Copenhagen Market
This is still being grown but on a limited area.  This is an introduction, which has been replaced by Golden Acre and ‘Pride of India’ because of their earliness and smaller head size.
Early Drumhead
It is an early variety having light green foliage.  Leaves are medium to large, curving inward and enclosing the head loosely.  Leaves formed, the head fold over each other at the centre.  The heads are flat.
Golden Acre
This is an earliest variety evolved by selection from the Copenhagen Market and recommended by IARI for cultivation.  It takes about 60-65 days from transplanting to head formation.  It has fewer outer leaves which are cup shaped and arranged in two whorls.  The heads are solid, short core and weighing of about 1.0-1.5 kg.  The heads should be harvested immediately after head formation; otherwise, cracking may take place.  If the timely sowings are not done, then the heads formation will be conical (Tiwari et.al., 1977).  The variety has also been highly suitable for spring and summer growing in the hills.
H-113
This is a self-incompatible based hybrid between Sel-8 and 83-6 line, developed at IARI, Regional Station, and Katrain.  Plants bear roundish, compact head (13.5 x 16 cm), bluish green and waxy leaves, 0.5-0.7 cm stalk length and 50-60   cm frame size (13.5 x 16 cm).  It gives average yield of 473.5 q /ha in 60-68 days of crop duration.
Harirani Gole
It is good hybrids for medium alters maturity.  It produces medium sized ball shaped dark blackish green, solid head with good wrapper leaves.  Each head weight is 1.5-2.0 kg.  It can be harvested after 95-100 days of transplanting.
Kranti
It is ready for harvesting within 60 days after transplanting.  It is good for close spacing.  Heads are round and compact with 0.8 -1.2 kg per head weight.
Jersey Wakefield
It is an introduction with pointed head, which preferred by some growers.  It takes about 55-60 days for head information.  The outer leaves are few and slightly crinkled.  Average weight   is 1.0 – 1.5 kg.  It has better taste.
Late Drumhead
It is late group variety.  It takes about 105-110 days from transplanting to head formation.  Stalk is short with small frame and few outer leaves.  Heads are uniform, solid, large flat; drum shaped and pale green in colour.
Pride of India
It is an introduction and recommended by Dr. Y.S.Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan.  The plant type of this variety is similar to ‘Golden Acre’.  But it is about a week altering in maturity.  It has bigger sized heads, weighing about 1.5 to 2.0 kg per head.
Mitra
It is an early hybrid with excellent head to plant ratio.  Heads are fresh green, uniform, compact, ball shaped with weight around 0.8 to 1.2 kg each.  It has good field retention ability.
MCV-1
Heads are ready after 80 days from transplanting.  It has round shape, bigger head (1.5-2.5 kg) and compact.  The foliage is dark   green with waxy margins.
Pusa Ageti
It   has been developed from TKCBH-28 (F1 hybrid) procured from Taiwan Selection were made F1 generation onwards by using simple   recurrent selection.  It is the first variety which seed can produce in subtropical climate.  It takes about 70-90 days from transplanting to harvesting.  Head weight varies from 600 to 1,200 g, yielding 110-380 q/ha, depending upon the time of transplanting.  It has medium sized frame, small stalk, upright growing habit, and wax coated grey green foliage, broad lamina with prominent midrib and waxy margin.
Pusa Drum Head
It is an important variety, selected   and released by IARI, Regional Station, Katrain (Kullu Valley).  Plants have wider frame with 20-25 light green outer leaves with prominent midribs and venation.  Heads are solid and flat weighing about e to 4 kg.  It takes about 80-90 days from transplanting to head formation and is probably the earliest variety among the Drum Head Group.  It also possesses field resistant to black leg (Swarup et al., 1968).
Pusm Mukta (SEL.8)
This is a new variety developed at IARI, Regional Station, Katrain (Kullu Valley) by hybridization between EC 24855 x EC 10109.  The light green foliage with wavy margins is a distinguishing character of the variety.  It has short stalk, medium frame, and slightly bigger leaves than Golden Acre and wavy puckered at the margins.  The heads are compact, slightly flattish round with a loose wrapper leaf at the top.  It is about a week later than Golden Acre and average head weight is 1.5-2.0 kg.  It is resistant to black rot (Xanthomonas campestris) and has been specially identified for the areas, where this disease is a problem.
Pusa Synthetic
This variety ahs been developed from IARI Regional Station, Katrain (Kullu Valley).  It is an early synthetic variety.  The yield potential of this variety is 350-460 q/ha.
Red Cababge
All the red cabbage cultivars are tolerant to diamond back moth insect which is serious pest of cabbage.  It has distinct coat of wax and produces a head of 1-2 kg, taking about 90 days from transplanting to head formation.
September
It is an introduction from German Democratic Republic is the most popular in the Nilgiris hills and recommended for cultivation by Tamil Nadu State Department of Horticulture.  The foliage is dark green with wavy margin.  The stalk is long and heads usually tilt on one side after formation.  It has solid, flattish round to slightly oblong heads.  It has very good keeping quality.  This variety takes about 96 to 100 days from transplanting to head formation.
Sri Ganesh Gol
The hybrid has been developed at Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds Co. Ltd., Jalna and recommended for cultivation in Andhra Pradesh, eastern Part of Madhya Pradesh and Orissa.  Plants are vigorous.  Heads are round, compact, attractive, bluish green and become ready for harvest in 90 to 95 days after nursery sowing.  It is resistant to yellowing.  It is good transport quality.  It gives an average yield of 500 to 750 q/ha.
Suhda (BSS-115)
The hybrid has been developed at Beejo Sheetal Seeds Pvt. Ltd., Jalna.  Heads are highly compact and mature in 75 days.  This hybrid can be grown round the year.  The average weight of head is 2-3 kg.  This hybrid is resistant to fusarium wilt.
Suvarna (BSS-32)
The hybrid has been developed at Beejo Sheetal Seeds Pvt. Ltd., Jalna.  Heads are round and average head weight is 3 kg.  This hybrid has strong smooth outer leaves.  It matures in 110 days.
Questo
It is a high yielder hybrid and has ability to stand over severe hot conditions.  Head can stand in the field conditions up to 70 days.  After maturity, heads are compact round and very solid with dark blackish colour.  It is good for tropical climate.
Climatic Requirements
Cabbage can be grown easily under a wide range of environmental conditions but cool moist climate is most suitable.  The optimum soil temperature for seed germination is (22-26.2oC).  The optimum temperature for growth is between (25.2 to 34.2oC).  Whereas, temperature above 43.2oC, growth is arrested in most of the cultivars.  Minimum temperature for growth of cabbage is just above 0oC.  It is reported that after cold treatment at 4 to 10oC  for 7-9 weeks, the plant bolt sooner and flower more abundantly than when exposed to such temperatures for shorter period but before this temperature treatment, plants must have passed juvenile phase. (Nieuwhoff, 1969).
Soil Conditions
Cabbage can be grown in wide range of sandy to heavy soils.  Early cultivars grow well in light soils, whereas, maturing ones perform better on heavy soils.  However, well-drained soils give larger yields.  The optimum pH of soil for cabbage cultivation is between 6.0-6.5.  Most of the cabbage is somewhat tolerant to salt.  In saline soils, the plants show die back of leaf margins and dark foliage and it become more susceptible to diseases like black leg.
Sowing Time
Seed-sowing time varies in different parts of India.  In hills, especially, in high hills, seeds are sown in May – June for summer / autumn crop.  In the hilly areas which receive heavy rains, the summer and autumn crop is rather limited and sowing is undertaken in autumn to harvest them in late spring in early summer by over watering them.  In the plains of northern India, sowing in situ or in seedbed starts from early August and continue till November for the late cultivars.  In eastern India, sowing is generally started from mid to late September.  Sowing is delayed further for areas in the southern hills except in the western and southern peninsular, where the crop can be grown almost round the year by selecting proper cultivars / hybrids.
Seed Rate, Methods of Sowing and Transplanting Distance

About 200-500 g/ha seed is required.  Cabbage is a transplanted crop.  In India, the seeds are sown in a seedbed.  In the plains, the seed beds for early crop require cover to save the small seedlings from rains, while in the high hills, it may be better to grow them under glass flames or poly tunnels.  However, the seedlings of mid season or late cultivar may be raised in the open.  The soil of nursery bed should be well prepared and free from disease organisms.  The sieved well rotten farmyard manure or compost 2 2-3 kg/m2 must

be added in the seedbed.  Before sowing, the seed should be treated with any one of fungicide like Thiram, Cerasan, Agrosan or Bavistin @ 2 g/kg seeds.  The optimum spacing between rows in the nursery bed is 10 cm and the depth of sowing should be 1.5-2.5 cm.  For planting one hectare 200-300 m2 seedbed at the rate of 1 to 2 g per sq. m is required.  One-gram seed would give rise to about 1000 seedlings.  After sowing, the seed is properly covered with a thin layer of mixture of fine manure and soil.  The beds are leveled gently.    A regular and good moisture supply is needed for rapid germination of seed and the optimum growth of seedlings.  To keep the upper soil of seedbed moist, a thin layer of dry grass is spread on the beds and watering is done in the form of shower either with watering cane or with the help of a sprinkler.  But, the seed bed cover should be removed as soon as the emergence of young seedlings above the ground starts.  If there is over crowding of seedlings due to thick sowing, the extra seedlings should be thinned out.  Attention should also be given for control of diseases and insect pests in the nursery.  “Damping off” caused by different fungi viz. Pythium spp. Rhizoctonia spp. is common and severe disease in nursery.  The spray of blitox-50 @ 0.3 per cent is effective against this disease.
            Generally, 4-6 weeks old seedlings are ready for transplanting but older seedlings up to 8 weeks age can also be transplanted.  However, older seedlings have adverse effect on the establishment and growth of young plants.  The optimum time of transplanting varies in different climatic conditions.  The planting in plains of India can be done from August to December and in hills from April to August.  Early maturing cultivars like “Golden Acre” does well in the plains because of shorter cool period, while, “Drum Head Late”, “Pusa Drum Head” and other late maturing varieties performs better in hills, where, cool temperature are available for longer duration.  However, cultivars of all maturity groups can be grown in hills of north India by planting on suitable altitudes at optimum time.  The planting distance may be varying according to cultivar, planting season and soil conditions.  The following distances are generally recommended on the basis of maturity of cultivars viz., for early 45 x 45; cm or 60 x 30 cm, mid 60 x 45 cm and late 60 x 60 cm.  The planting is done on the flat land, ridges or in furrows depending on climate and soil conditions.  For early planting, ridge method will be more suitable, especially, in areas where the rain occurs at the time of planting.  In saline soils, planting should be done in furrows.
Nutritional Requirements and Their Management
Manure’s and fertilizers requirements in cabbage are depend upon fertility status of the soil which is determined by soil testing.  However, if soil testing is not possible, then 200-250 q/ha farmyard manure should be applied.  It should be thoroughly mixed in the soil before 15-20 days of transplanting.  The quantity of nitrogen, phosphorous and potash varies from place to place, as given in Table 2.
Table 2: Recommendations of quantity of nitrogen, phosphorous and potash in cabbage in different states of India (Anon, 2000).

Half quantity of nitrogen and full quantity of each phosphorous and potash is applied at the time of transplanting.  Remaining quantity of nitrogen is applied at 30-45 days of transplanting.
Intercultural Operations
Regular intercultural operations are necessary for proper aeration of root system and control of weeds to promote healthy plant growth.  Two three manual weddings are required.  The herbicides like Trifluralin @ 0.5 kg/ha (soil incorporation) and Fluchloralin @ 0.5 kg/ha (soil incorporation) can be used for weed control in cabbage.
Use of Plant Growth regulators
The recommended plant growth regulators (PGRs) in cabbage are given in Table 3.
Table 3
Recommended Plant Growth Regulators (PGR’S) in Cabbage

Water Management
Cabbage is very sensitive to soil moisture.  Maximum growth and yield can only be obtained when a plentiful supply of water is available to the plants throughout the growth.  First irrigation is given just after transplanting of seedlings and thereafter, irrigation may be done at 10-15 days interval according to season and soil conditions.  But optimum soil moisture should be maintained regularly.  Cabbage is usually irrigated by furrow method of irrigation.  Excessive irrigation in early stages causes superficial rooting and washing down of nutrients.  Heavy irrigation should also be avoided when the heads have formed, as it will result in splitting of heads.
Harvesting, Yield and Storage
The harvesting   of cabbage is done when the heads reach at marketable size.  The early cultivars grown under comparatively warmer conditions develop loose head at the initial stage, but became harder at maturity.  In some cultivars, the heads start cracking soon after the maturity.  In such cases, the quality of head is deteriorates fast, if harvesting is delayed.  Hence, harvesting should be done at right stage for getting good quality head.  The early cultivars take 60-80 days, medium 80-100 days and alter 100-130 days for harvesting after transplanting.  The yield of early cabbage variety ranges between 300-400 q/ha, whereas, medium and late cabbage 400-600 q/ha in northern plain.  Cabbage can be stored at 0oC and 90-95 per cent RH for about 2 to 8 months (Mercontilia, 1989).
Diseases and Pests
Diseases
Fungal Diseases
Downy Mildew (Perenospora parasitica)
Plant can be infected at any time during their growing period.  Young plants infected early show a white mildew growth mostly on the under side of leaf.  Later, however, slight yellowing shows up the corresponding upper surface.  The young leaf may drop off.  Older leaves usually persist and the infected areas enlarge as they turn tan and papery.  When the disease is severe the whole leaf dies.
Control Measures
It can be controlled by spray the seedling in the nursery bed with copper oxychloride (0.3 per cent)
Wire Stem (Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn)
It may attack different stages of growth.  Young seedlings suffer the worst.  Young plants shows soft water soaked post on the skin just above the ground.  The cotyledons wither and the plant eventually falls over and perishes.  The fungus also causes head rot in cabbage.  The first sign of infection is a reddish brown discoloration on the stem at the soil level.  The area is constricted and the plant may be bent or twisted without breaking.
Control Measures
Regulating moisture levels, seed treatment and soil drenching with Dithane M-45 (0.2 per cent) or Bavistin (0.1 per cent) can be used for protection against the disease.

Black Spot (Alternaria brassicae (Berk) Sacc.)
The first symptom is a small dark spot on the leaf surfaces.  As the spot enlarges, concentric rings develop.  The diseased spot enlarges progressively and defoliate plants.  It is a destructive disease on seed crop, affecting pods and seeds.
Control Measures
Spray Captan (0.2 per cent) or Copper oxychloride (0.5 per cent) for the control of disease (Sridhar, 1982).
Cabbage Yellow (Fusarium oxysproum f. sp conglutinans (Wollenweber) Snyder and Hansen)
Affected plants have a sickly dwarfed yellow appearance, lower leaves drop one by one and growth of the plant becomes stunted.  The fungus is seed borne and can also in soil persist many years.  Disease development is promoted by warm weather conditions.
Control Measures
Disease management is difficult.  Field sanitation, crop rotation and using disease free seeds are useful for controlling the disease up to some extent.  Since, resistant cultivars are available, it is better to use them rather than to try other means of control.  There are two types of resistant reported.
Type A
Single dominant gene controls the resistance, found first in cabbage cultivars All Head Early, Copenhagen Market, Glory of Enkhuizen (Walker and Wellman, 1928).  It is stable at different soil temperature.  This apparently has been derived directly from B. oleraceae var. sylvestris.
Type B
The cabbage cultivar Wisconsion Hollander has this type of resistance.  Both A and B types are found in Wisconsion All season.
Black Leg (Phoma lingam) (Tode ex Fr.) Desm
It occurs in most of the regions especially in area with rainfall during the growing period.  The fungus is carried by the seed and hence it may occur from the early stage.  Stem of the affected plant when split vertically, shows severe black discoloration of sap stream.  Whole root system decays from bottom upward.  Frequently, the affected plants fall over in the field.
Control Measures

1. As the main infection is through seeds, hot water treatment can be prevented
2. Spraying Copper oxychloride or with Organomercuric compound and
3. Use of resistant variety like Pusa Drumhead.

Bacterial Diseases
Black Rot of Crucifers (Xanthomonas capestris pv. Campestris (Pammel) Dowson)
The disease was first observed in the USA on cabbage in 1891, but the causal bacterium was identified during 1895.  In India, disease was first described in 1928 on cabbage from Pune, Maharastra (Patwardhan, 1928).  The infected plant become stunted, often one side of cotyledon turn yellow to black bend down and drop off prematurely.  Many lower leaves are also shed off early.  The remaining leaves may turn yellow with blackened veins.  Development of ‘V’   shaped chlorotic to yellow lesions take place from the leaf margin.  The vein and vein let turn black and the leaf tissue necrotic and brittle.  Lesion progress towards the midrib and from this systematic infection further spread into stem and root.  Vascular tissues in affected parts become conspicuously black, followed by internal break down of fleshy tissue.  Black sunken spots may develop on succulent seed stocks and siliqua.
Control Measures
Considerable reduction in disease has been observed when seeds are treated with Plantomycin (100 ppm) (Kishan, 1981a) or Agrimycin 100 (100 ppm) (Rao and Kishan, 1986) or Streptocyclin (100 ppm) (Shah et al., 1985) or Auromycin (1: 1000) (Trivedi and Patel, 1972).
Spot of Cabbage (Pseudomonas cichorii (Swingle) Staff)
It was first reported from USA in 1956.  In India, it was reported by Trivedi and Patel (1972) in 1961 from Solan.  The spots on cabbage heads are circular to oblong, translucent, buff to brown, 7-12 mm in diameter, sunken and having typical donations.  Lesions on the inner leaves are irregular on outline, almost black in colour and localized near the margin of young leaves.  The vascular bundles of stem become dark brown.  Elongated and sunken lesion, 5-7 cm in size also develops on petiole and mid ribs of the lower leaves.
Control Measures
As in black rot of cabbage.
Club Root (Plasmodiophora brassicae War.)
This is a typical root parasite.  Club root is particularly prevalent in soils with a pH above 7.  Once affected, it causes irregular galls on the roots and these on the lateral roots take the shape of spindle.  Leaves become yellowish and wilt.
Control Measures

1. At the planting time, 250 ml of 0.05 to 0.10 per cent solution of mercuric chloride may be applied for direct control.
2. Roots are treated with 4 per cent calomel paste before transplanting and
3. Use of resistant variety like Badger Shipper.

Pests
Leaf Webber (Crocidolomia binotalis Zelelr): Adult moths are small and light brown coloured.  Eggs are laid in clusters on the under surface of leaves and held together by gelatinous glue.
Control Measures

1. Most of the insecticides recommended for diamond back moth control are also effective against leaf Webber.
2. In biological control, major natural mortality factors for leaf webber was recorded parasitization by Bracon hebetor Say and Palexorusta solennis (Wlk) in the late larval  instars (Singh, 1978).

Mustard Sawfly (Althalia lugens proxima Klug)
The blackish caterpillar that attacks all Cole crops and feed on leaves of young seedling in the early stages.  The infested leaves become curl and falls on the ground when touched.
Control Measures

1. If low infestation and number of attacked plants are few, hand picking of caterpillar, is the best method of controlling the larvae.
2. Dusting the plants with sevin @ 20-25 kg per hectare or spraying the same @ 5 g per litre of water is also effective to control this insect.

Mustard Aphids (Lipaphis erysimi Kalt)
This is a greenish white small insect that attacks cabbage and other cole crops, when there is a cloudy weather.  They suck the sap from the plants.  The affected leaves get curled and plants wither and die.
Control Measures

1. Aphid can effectively be controlled by spraying the crop with any one of the insecticides like Methyl Dematon (Metasystox-25 EC, Hexasystox-35 EC, etc.) or Dimethoate (Rogar 30 EC, Methoate 30 EC, Sumidon, Demidon, etc. @ 1 ml per litre of water or Phosphomidon (Demacron 100 EC, Sumidon, Demidon, etc.) @ 0.5 ml per litre of water, starting just after the germination of seed and subsequently at an interval of 15 days.
2. Soil application of Phorate 10 G @ 15 kg/ha or Thimmet 10 G @ 12 kg per hectare in two doses i.e., half at the time of planting and other half at the time of earthing up has also been effective against aphids.

Diamond Back Moth (Plutella xylostella L.)  
In India, it was first recorded in 1914 (Fletcher, 1914) on cruciferous vegetables.  A small slender pale green caterpillar that feeds on leaves and makes holes in them.  The infested crop becomes unsuitable for marketing.

Control Measures
The pest can be control by (i) Foliar spray twice or thrice Cypermethrin (0.2 kg a.i.) or Femvalerate (0.1 kg a.i. /ha) or Sulprofos (1.0 kg a.i./ha) or Prothiophos (0.75 kg a.i./ha). (ii) Under All India Co-coordinated Vegetable Improvement Projects on control of diamond back moth (DBM) results revealed that against DBM and leaf Webber, three sprays of Femvalerate @ 50g.a.i./ha has found to give maximum cost benefit ratio at IIHR, Bangalore (Anon, 2000).  The use of mustard as trap crop proved quite effective in controlling diamond back moth incidence.  Hence, this practice has been recommended to control diamond back moth throughout India.  Mustard crop should be sown 15 days before cabbage planting.  Two to three sprays of Dichlorphos @ 1 kg a.i./ha in mustard and two sprays of Cartap hydrochloride @ 500 g.a.i./ha or 5 per cent neem seed kernel extract in cabbage, starting from primordial stage of the crop at 15 days interval has been recommended.
Cabbage Borer (Hellula undalis F.)
A white brown caterpillar that mines the leaves and feed on shoots.  Later, it burrows into the stem of cabbage.  The affected plants wilt, remain dwarf or may even die.
Control Measures
Chemicals recommended for diamond back moth and leaf Webber control are also effective for cabbage borer.
Cabbage Butter Fly (Pieris brassicae Linn.)
The maggots first attack the young rootlets and then burrow into the main roots.  The affected plants become yellow, wilt and sometimes they may die.
Control Measures
Sprays of 0.15 per cent Carbaryl and 0.4 per cent fungicide give adequate   control of the pest (Atwal and Singh, 1969).
Painted Bug (Bagada crucifer arum Kirk.)
The adult and nymph of this pest suck the sap from the plants and retard their normal growth.
Control Measures
Same as for aphids.
Seed Production and Seed Certification Standards
Seed Production
Climatic Requirements
Cabbage thrives in a relatively cool, moist climate with moderate rainfall, well distributed during the growing season.  It can withstand frost in the head stage.  It requires a dormant period of cool temperature to bolt and initiate seed stalks and flower.  Cool temperatures, however, are effective only after stem diameter, is one cm at least.  In temperate climates, this occurs during the winter after the first season growth.  Flowering and seed production follow in the second year.  Headed plants form seed stalks when exposed to mean temperature of about 5oC for six to eight weeks.  In India, seed production of cabbage is possible only in hilly areas.
Land Requirements
Land to be used for seed production of cabbage should be free from volunteer plants.
Methods of Seed Production
Being a biennial, cabbage requires two seasons to produce seed.  In the first season, the heads are produced and in the following seasons seed production follows.  The seed crop can be left in situ or transplanted during autumn.  In situ method is usually followed for certified seed production and the later for nucleus seed production.
            In situ method, the crop is allowed to over winter and produce seed in their original position, i.e. where they are first planted in the seedling stage.  In the transplanting method, the mature plants are uprooted.  After removing whorls, the plants are immediately reset in a well prepared new fields in such a way that he whole stem below the head goes underground with the head resting just above their surface.
            There are three methods to produce seed of cabbage.
Stump Method
In this method, when the crop in the first season is fully mature, the heads are examined for true to type.  The plants with off type heads are removed.  Then heads are cut just below the base by means of a sharp knife, keeping the stem with outer whorl of leaves intact.  The beheaded portion of the plant is called “stump”.  The heads are marketed and the stumps either are leaf in situ replanted in the second season i.e. during autumn.  The following spring, after the dormancy is broken, the bud sprout forms the axils of all the leaves and leaf scars.
Advantages

1. Gives extra income by way of sale of heads.
2. The crop matures 12-15 days earlier than the head intact method and
3. Seed yield is slightly increased.

Disadvantages
In this method, flowering shoots are decumbent and require very heavy staking otherwise they breakdown very easily while interculturing or spraying.
Stump with Central Core Method
In this method, when the crop is fully mature in the first season, the heads are examined for true to type.  Plants with off type heads are removed and rejected.  Then the heads are chopped on all sides with downward perpendicular cuts in such a way that the central core is not damaged.  This is an improvement over stump method in that the shoots arising from the main system are not decumbent.  During the last week of February and until 15th March, when the heads start bursting, two vertical cross cuts are given to the head.  Taking care that the central growing point is not injured.  In the absence of such cuts, the heads burst out irregularly and sometimes the growing tip is broken.  The operation is completed by going around the field twice or thrice during this period.
Advantages
(i) Shoots arising from the main stem are not decumbent, hence very heavy staking is not required and (ii) Seed yield is increased.
Disadvantages
The chopped heads cannot be marketed.
Head Intact Method
In this method, when the crop is fully mature in the first season, the heads are examined for true to type.  The plants with off type heads are removed from the field.  The head is kept intact and only a cross cut is given to facilitate the emergence of a stalk.
Advantages

1. The removal for heads (stump method) or chopping of heads on all sides (central core intact method) is not required.  This saves time and labour.
2. Very heavy staking is not required.

Disadvantages
The seed yield is slightly low as compared to stump, or stump with central core intact method.
Brief Cultural Practices (in situ Method)
Time of Sowing and Transplanting
The sowing time of different varieties should be so adjusted as to complete head formation by the end of October or first week of November, at that time, the mean temperature falls to 10oC or below, at this temperature, the heads stand best for over wintering.  Early varieties like ‘Golden Acre’ should be sown from 10th to 25th July and transplanted when the seedlings are three to four week old, during the second fortnight of August.  This sowing time must be strictly adhered to, as the crop from the early sowings has matured head during September (20oC).  The heads get infected with bacterial stock rot, which sometimes is very severe.  The late crop, planted during September does not form heads and bolts directly during spring and the seed grower is not able to ascertain purity of the crop.  Medium late varieties like Bruppe’s Sure Head, and alter varieties like Drum Head, which takes about 2 to 3 months to produce mature heads, should be sown during the second and first fortnight of June, respectively and transplanting finished by the first week of August.  The mean temperature 22.5oC, 20oC and 14oC of August, September and October, respectively, afford optimum requirements for growth and head formation. The later transplanted crop starts head formation during spring and continues up to June and usually does not produce seed stalks.
Method of Nursery Sowing
The seeds are sown in raised nursery beds in a manner as described earlier in commercial production of cabbage.
Source of Seed and Seed Rate
Obtain nucleus / breeder’s / foundation seed from source approved by a seed certification agency.  For main season and alter varieties, 375 to 400 g seeds/ha and early varieties, 600-700 g seeds/ha.
Preparation of Land for Transplanting
Prepare the land to a fine tilth by repeated ploughing and harrowing followed by leveling.
Manure and Fertilizers
Cabbage grows satisfactorily only when the supply of organic mater is liberal.  For good crop, apply 500 to 600 quintal of farmyard manure per hectare at the time of land preparation.  Apply 100 kg/ha I nitrogen, 60 kg/ha phosphorus and 60 kg/ha of potash by drilling, or by broadcasting, sufficiently before transplanting the seedlings.  Give another dose of 50 kg/ha nitrogen as surface application at the time of seed stalk emergence during March.  Extra application of nitrogen may be given as and when there is a need before flowering starts, depending upon the condition of the crop.
Transplanting
Three to four week old seedlings are transplanted.  Transplanting should preferably be done in the evening and the field irrigated immediately afterwards.
Spacing
Late varieties – 60 x 60 cm; Medium varieties 60 x 45 cm; Early varieties 45 x 45 cm.
Irrigation
Cabbage requires a continuous supply of moisture.  Irrigate the crop as frequently as required.  Heavy irrigation should, however, be avoided when the heads have formed.  A sudden heavy irrigation after a dry spell may cause bursting of heads.
Hoeing and Weeding
At least three weddings and hoeing till the end of October are essential.  One weeding and earthling up during November and December and the second during March when seed stalks have emerged, control weeds and also help in proper drainage during winter and thereafter.
Staking
After the flower stalk are sufficiently developed, staking is necessary to keep the plants in an upright position.
Handling the mature head
After the planted crop has fully developed heads at the close of autumn, the next step is the handling of these plants for seed production.  Handling of plants can be done by any one of the three methods i.e. stump, stump with central core intact methods, described earlier.
Rouging
The first rouging is done at the time of handling of the mature heads.  All off type plants, diseased, or otherwise undesirable types, are removed at this stage.  The second rouging is done before the heads start bursting.  The loose leafed, poorly heading plants and those having a long stem with heavy frame must be rouged out at his stage.  It is highly undesirable to keep such poor plants in the seed plots.  Subsequent rouging for off types, diseased plants affected by, black leg, soft rot or leaf spot should be done from time to time as required.
Harvesting and Threshing
Cabbage starts seed stalk elongation from 10-20th March when the mean temperature rises to 10-13oC.  Flowering and pod formation starts during the first week of April at mean temperature of 13-18.5oC.  From 15th April to 15th May, the crop is in full flush of flowering and fruiting.  The ripening of pods commences by 15th June to 20th   June and the harvesting continues up to second week of July.  At mean temperatures below 20oC during June and July, the maturity of crop is delayed at least by a fortnight and the harvesting may continue up to July end.  To avoid shattering of seeds, the whole crop is harvested in two or three lots with sickles.  Generally, the early plants are harvested first, and when the pod colour is about 60-70 per cent of the rest of the crop changes to yellowish brown, it is harvested completely and piled up for curing.  After 4-5 days, it is then threshed with sticks and sifted with hand   sifters.  After thoroughly drying, seeds are cleaned and stored.
Seed yield: 500-600 kg per hectare.

Cabbage bolting    

Cabbage seeds

Seed Certification Standards
I. Field Inspection
A minimum of three inspections should be done, the first before the marketable stage, the second at the marketable stage and the third at flowering stage.
II. Field Standards
A. General Requirements
1. Isolation: Seed fields should be isolated from the contaminants shown in column 2 and column 3 of the said Table:

B. Specific Requirements:

* Standards for off types should be met at and after flowering and for seed borne diseases at final inspection.
** Seed borne diseases shall be Black leg (Leptosphaeria maculans (Desm.) Cos. & de Not).  Black rot (Xanthomonas campestris cv. campestris (Pamm.) Dawson), Soft Rot (Erwinia carotovora L.R. Jones).
III. Seed Standards

1. Cabbage is propagated by

2. Commercial part of cabbage is

3. Alkaloid present in cabbage

4. Whiptail is caused due to the deficiency of

5. __________ is the method of commercial seed production in cabbage

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Origin, area, production, varieties, package of practices for COLE CROPS CAULIFLOWER
CAULIFLOWER – Brassica oleracea var. Botrytis
Family: Cruciferae
(Chromosome Number: 2n=18)
Origin and History

The name cauliflower consists of two Latin words, ‘caulis’ and ‘floris’, former means cabbage and the later means flowers.  It is originated from wild cabbage known as ‘Cole warts’, through mutation, human selection and adoption.  Dr. Jemson at Saharanpur introduced it to India in 1822 during the period of East India Company (Swarup and Chatterjee, 1972).  The original introduction was “Cornish types”, which originated in England followed by temperate types, originated in Germany and Netherlands in 18th century.  The present tropical Indian cauliflower developed as a result of inter crossing between European and Cornish types.  Another development also took place in India, resulting in tropical types resistant to high temperature and high rainfall.  These types are grown in Indian plains from May to September followed by temperate types commonly known as snowball cauliflower got established around Mediterranean region particularly in Italy.  Its further development and improvement were achieved in North and North Western Europe extending its cultivation to 60oN.  The development of Indian cauliflower types made it possible to extend its growing area in the tropics and subtropics of the world.  The crop is presently cultivated from 11oN to 60oN.  The different types of cauliflower like Cornish, Northerns, Roscoff, Angers and Erfurts originated from the Italians independently in different region like Cornish and northern England, Roscoff and Angers in France and Erfurts or Snowball in Germany and the Netherlands.  Cornish type, perhaps the first to be introduced in India, has itself gone out of cultivation after contributing many genes to Indian varieties like resistance to black rot, self-incompatibility, curd flavour, open plant habit, exposed yellow loose curds etc. (Swarup and Chatterjee, 1972).
Nutritive Value and Uses
The edible part of cauliflower is known as curd, which consists of a shoot system with short internodes, branches apices and bracts.  The edible portion of this vegetable is approximately 45 per cent of the vegetable as purchased.  It has high quality of proteins and peculiar in stability of vitamin C after cooking.  It is rich in minerals such as potassium, sodium, iron, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium etc.  It also contains vitamin A (Nath, 1976) Conew (1959) has made an analysis on fresh weight basis.  Cauliflower contains 92.7 per cent water and the food value per 100 g of edible ascorbic acid 70 mg, thiamine 0.2 mg, riboflavin 0.1 mg and niacin 0.57 mg.  Sulphur containing compounds viz; hydrogen sulfide methanethiol, ethanethiol, propanethiol and dimethyl sulfide in addition to acetaldehyde and 2- methyl propanol have been identified in cooked cauliflower.  Cauliflower seedlings are used for salad and green.  The curd is used in curries, soups, and pickles.  In abundant areas of production, cauliflower curd is cut in to pieces, dried and preserved for off-season use.  The therapeutic effect of cauliflower has been well documented.  The inflorescence extract has been used in the treatment of scurvy, as a blood purifier and as an antacid.  The seeds have contraceptive properties.  Cauliflower extract has been reported to be effective in the inhibition of initiation and promotion of carcinogenesis in in vitro. Potential chemo preventive agents include ascorbic acid, carotenoids, tocopherols, isothiocyanates, indoles and flavonoids. 

 Area and Production
India is the largest producer of cauliflower in the world.  Out of total 5335447 ha of land under vegetables, cauliflower occupies nearly 4.4 per cent area under cauliflower during the year 1998-99.  Production of cauliflower was 4680600 tones during the year 1998-99.  The area, production and productivity of cauliflower from 1987-88 to 1998-99 are given in Table 1.
Table 1: Area, Production and Productivity of Cauliflower in India

Source: Horticultural Data Base (2000) NHB, Gurgaon.
The growing belts in different states in the country are as given below (NHB, 2000).

1. Uttranchal : Nainital, Pithaurgarh and Dehradun
2. Uttar Pradesh Plains
3. Himachal Pradesh : Shimla, Kullu and Sirmour
4. Haryana .
5. Rajasthan.
6. Bihar : Santhal, Pargana, Purina, Katihar, Sitamarhi, Samastipur, Saharsa, Dhanbad, Patna, Nalanda, West and East Champaran, Muzzafarpur, Vaishali, Bhagalpur, Darbangha and Madhubani
7. Gujarat: Mehsana, Khera, Ahmedabad and Baroda..
8. Maharashtra: Nasik, Nagpur and Kolhapur.
9. Orissa.
10. Karnataka: Hassan, Bangalore (Rural and Urban), Kolar and Mysore.

Apart from India, the other major producers of cauliflower in the world are China, France, Italy, UK, USA, Spain, Poland, Germany and Pakistan.
Classification
Swarup and Chatterjee (1972) classified the cauliflower varieties in various groups as given in Table 2.
Table 2: Classification of cauliflower varieties

Crisp (1982) has also classified the groups of cauliflower according to the phylogeny as given in Table 3.
Table 3 Classification of Cauliflower on the Basis of Phylogeny

            Further, cauliflower varieties can also be classified on the basis of maturity.  Most of the early Indian varieties of cauliflower are called by the name of the month in which the curds are mature and become ready for harvest, viz., ‘Kunwari (September-October maturity), Katki’ (October-November maturity), ‘Agahani’ (November maturity), ‘Posi’ (December maturity), ‘Maghi’ (January maturity).  Most of these varieties are highly heterozygous for maturity, plant growth and curd traits.  The cultivars are classified into five groups on the basis of curd maturity (Table 4).
Table 4 Classification of Cauliflower on the Basis of Maturity

Varieties / Hybrids
dania
It is developed from IARI, Regional Station, and Kalimpong for eastern hilly area.  Plants are strong having medium sized curd.  This variety is tolerant to the stress conditions.
EARLY KUNWARI
It is an early variety suitable for growing in Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and Delhi, selected by PAU, Ludhiana. The leaves are bluish green heavy with waxy bloom.  Curds are semi-spherical with even surface and ready for harvesting from mid September to mid-October.  This variety has been recommended for sowing from middle to the end of May.
HISAR-1
It suitable for mid late season under Haryana conditions.  It bears medium to large size white heads.  It yields 250 q/ha.
IMPROVED JAPANESE
It is an introduction from Israel.  Plants are erect Leaves are bluish green.  It can not tolerate hot season.  It is recommended for sowing in north Indian plains from July end to early August.  Curds are compact, white and maturing in late November to mid-December at 16-20oC.
PANT GOBI-2
It is composite variety developed from GBPUA&T, Pantnagar Curds are ready for harvesting from October onwards.  An average yield of this variety is 100q/ha.
PANT GOBHI-3
It is a synthetic variety, combining eight inbred lines of katki group and released from GBPUA&T, Pantnagar.  Plants are having relatively longer stem and sparse semi erect leaves.  Curds are hemispherical, creamy white, medium compact, non-ricey and mature in 110 days.  Average yield potential is 120 q/ha.

PANT GOBHI-4
It is released from GBPUA&T, Pantnagar by simple recurrent selection of Aghani group and recommended for cultivation in 1995 for Uttar Pradesh stat.  Plants are medium in growth with upright leaves.  Curds are round, creamy white and solid.  This variety is free from riceyness.
PANT SHUBRA
It is developed through simple recurrent selection and released from GBPAUA&T, Pantnagar in 1985 by Central Sub-committee on Crop Standard, Notification and Release of Varieties for cultivation in northern parts of the country.  It belongs to third maturity group.  Curds are compact, slightly conical, creamish white in colour, non-ricey and non-leafy.  It is suitable for rainy season.  Curds do not fade even under delayed harvesting and storage.
PUNJAB GIANT-26
It is a main season variety developed by PAU, Ludhiana.  Plant is 57 cm tall with a spread of 75 cm.  Curds are solid, white and medium in size.
PUNJAB GIANT-35
It is suitable for late season cultivation.  Curds are compact, medium sized and snow white.  The average yield of this variety is 225 q/ha.
PUSA AGHANI
This variety has been developed from IARI, New Delhi.  Curds are ready for harvesting in the month of November-December.  Curds are big in size, solid and white in colour.  An average yield of this variety is 150-160 q/ha.
PUSA DEEPALI
This has been developed through inbreeding from the local material at IARI, New Delhi and recommended for general cultivation in entire north India particularly Delhi and Punjab.  Plants are medium tall.  Leaves are erect, short, green and waxy.  Curds are compact, self-blanching, white and medium in size.  A uniform curd well protected by leaves and riceyness is almost absent.  It is recommended for sowing from May end to early June.  Curds are ready in the October when the average temperature is around 20-25oC.
PUSA EARLY SYNTHETIC
It is released in 1990 by IARI, New Delhi.  Plants are erect with bluish green leaves.  Curd is small to medium in size, flat, creamy white and compact.  It is suitable for early cultivation in northern and southern states.  The average yield is 117 q/ha.  It is resistant to riceyness.

PUSA HIM JYOTI     
It is released from IARI, New Delhi and suitable for transplanting in hill tract in the month May and August.  Plant is straight with bluish green leaves.  Curd is quietly white, solid and round.  It is ready in 30 days after transplanting for harvesting.  Yield of this variety is 160 q/ha.
PUSA HYBRID-2
It is recommended for cultivation in 1993 from IARI, New Delhi.  Plants are semi-erect with bluish green.  Leaves are green, long, upright and covered the curd at initiation stages.  Curd is creamy-white and highly compact.  It matures in 120 days after transplanting.  The yield potential of this variety is 230-250 q/ha.  It is resistant to downy mildew.  This variety is recommended for cultivation in humid Bengal-Assam basin and Sub-humid Sutlej Ganga-Alluvial Plains.
PUSA KATKI
This is one of the earliest variety released from IARI, New Delhi, which maturing is in October-November and having medium plants, bluish green and waxy leaves.  It is suitable for sowing in the middle of May.  Late planting beyond middle of August does not give good size curds.
PUSA SHARAD
The IARI variety release committee has released this variety in 1999.  Plants are semi-erect and open types with small stalk.  Leaves are glabrous, bluish-green, long petiolate oblong with narrow apex, wavy margin, prominent mid rib and ear like lobes at the base of lamina.  Its marketable curd becomes ready 85 days after transplanting.  It is about two weeks early in maturity over the standard cultivar, ‘Improved Japanese’.  Curds are white, knobby, very compact, semi-dome shaped and about 750-1000 g in weight.  Average yield is 260 q/ha about 20 per cent higher and 14.5 days early in maturity over Improved Japanese.  It is suitable for cultivation in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Rajasthan and West Bengal.
PUSA SHUBRA
Plants are erect with somewhat long talk and light bluish green leaves.  Curds are compact and white having average curd weight is 700-800g.  It is highly tolerant to riceyness.  It takes 125-130 days for 50 per cent curd and best temperature for curding is 12-16oC.  The yield potential of this variety is 250-300 q/ha.  This variety is resistant to black rot under both field and artificial conditions.
PUSA SNOWBALL-1
It is a derivative of the cross between EC 12013 and EC 12012 and released from IARI, Regional Station, Katrain (Kullu Valley) in 1977 by the Central Sub-Committee on Varietal Release for growing throughout the country, where Snowball groups are grown.  It is a late variety and suitable for cool season.  The optimum average temperatures for curd initiation and development are 10-16oC.  Its sowing time in north India is from mid-September to end of October.  Leaves are straight, upright and inner leaves tightly cover the curd.  Curds are very compact, medium in size and snow white.
PUSA SNOWBALL-2
Central Sub-committee on Varietal Release Committee, New Delhi, releases it in 1977 for general cultivation throughout the country.  It is suitable for late sown conditions.  Its outer leaves are upright, while, inner leaves cover the curd initially.  The Curd remains white even on exposure.  Curds become ready by the end of January or beginning of February (10-16oC).  This variety could not become popular because of its poor seeding ability.
PUSA SNOWBALL K-1
This is also developed at IARI, Regional Station, Katrain (Kullu Valley) and is tolerant to black rot caused by Xanthomonas compestris (Gill et al., 1983).  Amongst the snowball types, it has best quality curds, which are snow white in colour and retain it even if the harvesting is delayed.  The leaves are puckered, serrated and light green in colour.  It is also late by a week than Pusa Snowball 1 and 2, which will further extend the cauliflower availability period.
PUSA SYNTHETIC
It is a mid-season variety, synthesized from 7 inbred lines with good combining ability, released from IARI, New Delhi.  It has erect plants with 24-28 leaves varying in colour.  Plants frame is narrow to medium.  Curds are somewhat creamy white to white, compact becomes ready fro mid-December to mid-January      (12-15oC).  It is suitable for planting from mid-September to late September in North India.
PAWAS
It is most suitable for early crop, which can be grown from middle May to August.  It produces 700-800 g average curd weight and ready within 60 days after transplanting.
SWARNA
It can be grown from September to December in plain and around the year in the bills.  Curds are white, compact and ready within 80-85 days after transplanting.  It yielded 1-2.5 kg on an average curd weight.
SUMMER KING
It produces whitish round shaped curd and ready for harvesting with 65 days after transplanting with 400-500 g an average curd weight.  It can be grown during summer season in northern plain.
Climatic Requirements
The cauliflower has a wide range in adaptation to diverse climatic conditions, prevailing in temperate subtropics and tropical parts and therefore, the cultivation of cauliflower is wide spread in many countries of the world.  The optimum temperature for growth of young plants is around 23oC, but in later stages 17-20oC are most favourable.  The tropical cultivars show growth even at 35oC.  In temperate regions, the growth of young seedlings may be ceased, when temperatures are slightly about OoC, while, the early cultivars grown in plains of north India and other tropical parts can grow even at 35oC or still higher temperature (Nieuwhof, 1969).  Lower temperatures ranging from 5oC to 28-30oC are needed for transition from vegetative to curding phase.  The temperature higher or lower than the optimum required for curd formation of the cultivars may cause physiological disorder viz. riceyness, leafy curd and blindness.
Soil conditions
Cauliflower can be grown in all types of soil with good fertility and good regime.  In light soil, the plants are most sensitive to drought and therefore, adequate moisture supply is important.  For early crops, the light soils are preferred, while, loamy and clay loam soils are more suitable for mid season and late maturing types.  Cauliflower is relatively more sensitive to deficiency of boron and molybdenum, and it has high requirement of magnesium.  The deficiency of magnesium may quickly appears in acid soils.  High pH reduces the availability of boron.
Sowing Time
The optimum time of seed sowing in the nursery varies greatly depending upon climate, varieties and their temperature requirement for curd formation.  The nursery for mid season crop can be grown successfully by protection of beds from heavy rains during July-August is essential.  The seedlings for mid late and late crop can be conveniently raised, because of favourable temperature conditions.  Depending upon curd maturity of the varieties, the following sowing times have been recommended (Table 5).
Table 5 Recommended Sowing Times of Cauliflower (Swarup and Chatterjee, 1972).

Seed Rate, Methods of Sowing and Transplanting Distance
For cultivation of cauliflower in one hectare, 200-500 g seed would be needed, though, in the early crops, the requirement may be more to the tune of 1 kg.  For raising nursery, the nursery beds should be prepared by addition of well rotten farmyard manure or compost @ 10 kg/m2.  The soil of the beds is made friable by through digging / ploughing and harrowing and breaking the clods.  The sterilization of soil by drenching, the nursery beds with formalin @ 1:49, about 15-20 days before seed sowing is beneficial for preventing the attack of the fungal diseases.  After drenching, the beds should be kept covered with polythene for a week and then beds are again dug and left open for 5-6 days.So that, there is no injurious effect of formalin to the seeds.  The nursery must be raised about 15 cm high from ground surface for efficient drainage.  The sowing should be done in shallow furrows at 10 cm apart.  The depth of furrows may be 1.5-2 cm.  After sowing the seed, the furrows are covered with a mixture of sieved fine manure and soil and the beds are gently leveled at the surface.  The beds should be covered with a proper mulching material like dry cane grass or polythene before watering.  In the initial stage, water is applied with a water cane over the grass mulch but in later stage when plants are 15-20 days, old watering through furrows may be done.  However, the grass cover or polythene should be removed as soon the emergence of seed sprouts.  The beds should also be covered and shaded for protection against hot sunshine and rains especially in early season nursery.  Weeding and intercultural of nursery beds should be regularly done for raising healthy seedlings.  Generally, the seedlings are ready for transplanting in 3-6 weeks after seed sowing, depending upon variety, temperature and soil fertility.  In case of early crop, 5-6 weeks old seedlings have better establishment and less mortality in the field, while, in mid-season and late varieties 3-4 weeks old seedlings may be transplanted.  The planting distance may vary according to the variety, climate and soil.  Normally, the seedlings of early varieties are planted to 60 cm row to row and 30-45 cm plant to plant distance.  The main season and late varieties are planted at spacing of 60-75 cm between rows and 45-60 cm between plants.

 Nutritional Requirements and Their Management
Manure and fertilizer requirements in cauliflower are depend upon fertility status of the soil, which is determined by soil testing is not possible, then 150-200 q/ha farmyard manure should be applied in the soil before 15-20 before transplanting.  It should be mixed thoroughly in the field.  The quantity of nitrogen, phosphorous and potash should be given after determining the fertility status of soil.  However, research carried out under All India coordinated Vegetable Improvement Project for different state of the India; following recommendations for quantity of nitrogen phosphorous and potash have been given (Anon, 2000).

• A dose of 40 kg N/ha as basal + 40 kg N/ha as top dressing + 30 kg N/ha as foliar spray ahs been recommended for variety Snowball-16 under Sabour conditions.  However, for Pantnagar conditions, 60 kg N/ha as basal + 30 kg as foliar spray in three splits has been recommended for the same variety.  Further, at Kalyanpur, the best response was 60 kg N/ha as basal + 60 kg N/ha as top dressing in two equal splits.
• Application of 150 kg N/ha + 120 kg P2O3 per hectare has been recommended for obtaining economic yield under Kalyanpur conditions.
• For variety Pant Shubra, recommendation of 100 kg N, 60 kg P2O3 and 60 kg K2O per hectare has been recommended for Faizabad conditions.

In addition to NPK, borax @ 15 kg/ha and ammonium molybdate @ 15 kg/ha should also be applied in deficient soil of boron and molybdenum, respectively.  Half doses of nitrogen and full doses of each phosphorus and potash are applied at the time of transplanting.  Remaining quantity of nitrogen is applied 30-35 days after transplanting.
Intercultural Operations
The intercultural operations should be done regularly to keep the crop free from weeds and aeration of the root system.  Hoeing should not be deep to avoid injury to the roots.  Usually, in medium heavy and clay soils, there are crust penetration in root system are hindered, which affect plant growth.  During rainy season, the roots of plants in ridge planting maybe exposed, which requires adequate earthing.  When earthing or ridging is done, the side dressing of nitrogenous fertilizer should also be done for healthy growth of the crop.  In commercial weed control, basalin @ 2-3 kg a.i/ha + 1.2 hand weeding or tenoran 50 WP @ 1 kg a.i. /ha can be used.

       In cauliflower, for getting quality curd, blanching is an important operation to protect the curds from yellowing due to direct exposure to sum.  The curds may also loose some of their flavour, because of this exposure.  This problem generally occurs in such varieties of early and mid season maturity group, which have spreading and open plant type.  In some varieties, the curd remains naturally protected and surrounded by inner whorls of leaves.  These are called self-blanching types.  Drawing and tying the tips of leaves when curds are fully developed may do the blanching.  The other way to place a leaf a cauliflower over the curd 4-5 days prior to harvest. 

Use of Plant Growth Regulators
Various recommendations on use of plant growth regulators (PGRs) are given in Table 6.
Table – 6 Recommended Plant Growth Regulators (PGRs) in Cauliflower

Water Management
First irrigation is given just after transplanting.  Further irrigation will depend upon weather, soil type and variety.  However, regular maintenance of optimum moisture supply is essential during both growth and curd development stage.  For early and mid season crop, usually, lesser number of irrigation is needed because of rains.  In areas having rainfall, the planting is done on ridges, furrow irrigation should be given.
Harvesting, Yield and Storage
The harvesting is done as soon as the curd attains right maturity and they are compact, with white colour of the curds is maintained, If the harvesting is delayed, the curds become over mature, whose quality is deteriorated.  Such curds may turn loose, leafy, ricey or fuzzy.  The over mature curds should be sorted out while sending the produce to market.  For harvesting, the curds are cut off stalk well below the curd with a sharp cutting knife or sickle Yield of the cauliflower varies greatly depending upon variety, maturity group and season.  Early maturing cultivars have an average yield of 80-120 /ha.  The main season cauliflower produces 150-200 q yield/ha. while Snowball group and other late maturing cultivars gave the highest yield of 250-300 q/ha, because of highly compact curds and larger plant population per unit area.  Cauliflower can be stored successfully at 0oC and 90-95 per cent RH for 2-4 weeks (Hardenburgs et al., 1990).
Diseases, Pests and Physiological Disorders
Diseases
Most of the diseases, which affect cauliflower, are similar to diseases of cabbage.  However, some specific diseases of cauliflower are described below:
Stalk Rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib) De Bary)
Leaves when infected, turn light green and alter yellow and shed prematurely.  Black soft rot later often appears on petioles and mid rib touching.  The soil is covered with flubby growth of fungus.  Stem on the ground levels show girdling.  Cool (20-25oC) and 95-100 per cent conditions are ideal for disease initiation and spread (Sharma and Sharma, 1985).

Control Measures
Crop rotation is highly effective in decreasing disease incidence (Gupta et al. 1986).  Application of benlate (0.02%) and MBC (0.02%) have found to be effective in reducing disease incidence (Sharma and Sharma, 1985).
 Insect-Pests 
All the insect-pests, which damage cabbage, are also harmful to cauliflower and fallow same control measures.
Physiological Disorder
Cauliflower suffers from a number of physiological disorders, which manifest in different type of disease syndromes.  Some physiological disorders depend mainly on hereditary factor, whereas, other are fluctuation occurring in temperature, air, water, humidity, organic and inorganic nutrition.  Important physiological disorders, affecting cauliflower are described below:
Riceyness
It manifests in the elongation on peduncle wearing flower buds, rendering curds, granular, loose and somewhat velvety.  A premature initiation of floral bud is characterized by riceyness in cauliflower and is considered to be of poor quality for marketing.  At IARI, New Delhi, it has been found that this disorder may result from any temperature higher or lower than the optimum required for particular cultivars.  Riceyness mainly and harvesting has been delayed.  If late variety planted early, riceyness develops due to the prevalent of high temperature, however, if can also appear at lower temperature.  Hereditary factors have also been reported for riceyness.  Heavy dose of nitrogen and high relative humidity also contributes to riceyness.  It can be controlled by cultivation of genetically pure seed and appropriate varieties with recommended cultural practices.
Fuzziness
It appears as the flower pedicels of velvety curds elongate.  The anomaly is both hereditary and non-hereditary.  Cultivation of cauliflower, out of their normal season encourages fuzziness. Sowing good quality seed in right season under proper cultural practices, minimized fuzziness.
Leafiness
This disorder is commonly seen by formation of small thin leaves from the curd which reduces quality of curd.  Extremely small green leaves appear in between the curd segment due to inheritable or non-heritable factors.  Prevalence of high temperatures during curding phase aggravates leafiness.  Certain varieties are more sensitive to leafiness or bracketing than other.  It can be controlled by selection of varieties according to their adaptability.
Browning (Brown Rot or Red Rot)
It is caused by borne deficiency which is influenced by soil pH.  The availability of boron decreases at neutral soil reaction.  It is characterized by sign on the young leaves that become dark green and brittle.  The old leaves puckered, chlorotic and often drops off.  Sometimes, the downward curling of older leaves followed by development of blisters when boron deficiency is severe.  The leaves remain small and the growing point may die.  However, in later stage, water soaked, light brown to dark brown spots formed on the stem and branches may ultimately lead to the formation of cavities formed on the stem and branches may ultimately lead to the formation of cavities and a hollow stem.  Curds may also show irregular water soaked spots.  Which alter change to a rusty brown colour. The affected curds remain small and acquire a bitter taste.  This may be controlled by application of borax or sodium borate or sodium tetra borate at the rate of 20 kg/ha a soil application.  In case of acute deficiency, spray of 0.25 to 0.50 per cent solution of borax at the rate of 1 to 2 kg/ha depending upon growth, soil reaction and extent of deficiency.
Whiptail
Deficiency of molybdenum causes ‘whiptail’ syndrome, especially, in highly acidic soils.  Because high manganese concentrations in such soils hinder the uptake of molybdenum which seldom occurs when the soil pH is 5.5 or higher.  The young cauliflower plants become chlorotic and may turn white, particularly along the leaf margins.  They also become cupped and wither.  The leaves blades fail to develop properly, and the leaves are ruffled and distorted.  In older plant, the lamina of the newly formed leaves are irregular in shape, frequently, consisting of only a large bare midribs and hence, the common name “whiptail”.  It can be corrected by application of lime or dolomite limestone to raise the soil pH up to 6.5 or higher.  Sodium or Ammonium molybdate at the rate of 1-2 kg/ha as soil application can also control “whiptail” of cauliflower.

Buttoning
Development of small curds with inadequate foliage in cauliflower is known as buttoning.  It is also referred to as premature heading.  The leaves are so small that can not cover the formed head.  Causes of buttoning are (i) Transplanting of more than 6 week-old seedlings.  Generally, over aged seedlings when transplanted in the field take more time in establishment due to less developed root system.  A poor development of root system is possible due to insufficient availability for nutrients and inadequate space for the development of root system due to crowding of seedlings, allowed for longer duration in the nursery beds.  The growth rate of such over aged seedlings is usually slow.  Not only this they could not put on optimum vegetative growth and start forming curds, which further could not grow into normal size and causes buttoning.  Temperature below the optimum during growing period delays maturity. (ii) Planting as early variety in late vice versa leads buttoning. (iii) Hot and dry weather is unfavorable for vegetative growth of plants, but favourable for inducing curd formation and inhibits further enlargement.  Curds remain very small in size like buttons. (iv)When soil moisture becomes limiting factor, it checks the growth of the plants, which in turn, causes early formation of curds checks the growth of the plants, which in turn, causes early formation of curds without maintaining their further enlargement. (v) Transplanting of seedlings, obtained from poorly managed nursery bed.  Such seedlings may not have high potential for their vegetative growth, which is almost important for the formation and enlargement of normal curds. (vi) Slow plant growth in the nursery, over crowding, insufficient water, lack of weeding, bad condition of the soil, excessive crowding, insufficient water, lack of weeding, bad condition of the soil, excessive salt concentrations, low lying area or field with shallow and poor top salt may also cause buttoning. (vii) Vigorously grown nursery plants with thickened stems and sessile foliage being already generative have a tendency of button formation in the field.  The check in growth may be caused by root injury by insects or by some diseases (especially Rhizoctonia spp.).  It can be controlled by (i) Nursery should be properly look after to avoid any check in the plant growth.  (ii) An adequate amount of nitrogen and water should be applied. (iii) Do not delay transplanting and (IV) Cultural practices should be carried out well in time and water logging and overcrowding should be avoided.
Blindness
It means the plant without terminal buds or when the growing point collapse at an early stage and the terminal buds fails to develop and plant becomes blind.  It occurs in over wintered plants and any practice interfering in growth of the terminal bud may lead to blindness.  Plant grows without terminal bud and fails to form and curd.  It is characterized by the leaves that develop are large, dark green, thick and leathery owing to the accumulation of carbohydrates.  Sometimes, the axillary bud develops but the plant fails to produce a marketable curd.  The main cause of blindness are low temperature when plants are small and when damage occurs to the terminal bud during, handling of the plants or injury by insect-pests.  It can be controlled by avoiding young plant from low temperature exposure and care seedlings.  While planting and handling, seedlings are avoided damage from insect-pests.
Chlorosis
In cauliflower magnesium deficiency causes chlorosis when grown on highly acidic soils.  Chlorosis shows on interveinal and yellow mottling of lower leaves.  The affected leaves turn bronze in colour and become stiff.  In severely deficient plants, abscission of the lower leaves occurs and results into small curd formation.  It can be controlled by applying magnesium oxide @ 300 kg/ha, liming the soil with dolomite limestone to bring the soil pH to 6.5 are an effective control measure.Use of a fertilizer containing soluble magnesium, keeps it under control.
Hollow Stem
It may be due to boron deficiency and higher supply of nitrogen nutrition.  Hollowness caused by boron may be identified by water soaked and discoloured tissue, whereas, hollowness caused by nitrogen, the stem is perfectively clear while with no sign of disintegration.  It can be controlled by spraying of borax at 0.1 to 0.3 or soil application of borax @ 15-20 kg/ha. If hollow stem is used by boron deficiency. However, for normal type of hollowness, spacing the plants closer together or by reducing the fertilizer doses.
Frost Injury
In cauliflower, leaves of young seedling turn yellowish-white on both the surfaces.  Petioles become flaccid and white, midrib along with adjacent parenchyma and stem may also be injured.  Fully grown curds of cauliflower are more sensitive to frost damage, than the smaller ones.  However, in cabbage the younger leaves are particularly sensitive to frost, as that the centre of the heads turns brown, while, outwardly the head appears healthy, similar symptoms also occurs in Brussels sprouts.  It can be minimized by irrigating the field on anticipating the danger of frost and by raising the field temperature by creating smoke.
Pinking
Sometimes curds show pink tinge, this appears due to the exposure of curds to high light intensities.  Under this condition, anthocyanin form and gives rise pink colour curds.  This disorder is not so common.
1. _______types of cauliflower are self blanching.
a. Early season       b. Mid season c. Late season d. All the above
2. The edible part of cauliflower is known as
a. Head           b. Curd            c. Stem           d. Leaf
3. The premature initiation of flower buds is called as ___________.
4. Snow ball is a variety of ————-.
5. _________type of cauliflowers are self blanching.

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Origin, area, production, varieties, package of practices for COLE CROPS – KNOL- kHOL
Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes           

Knol-khol (Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes) is known by many names in India. It is popular in Kashmir, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and some parts of south India, but it is not cultivated commercially. It is characterized by the formation of knob (tuber) which arises from a thickening of the stem tissue above the cotyledons. The fleshy turnip-like enlargement of the stem develops entirely above the ground. This knob is harvested for human consumption as raw or cooked vegetable, though in some parts, young leaves are also used.

 Climate and soil
            Knol-khol thrives best in a relatively cool, moist climate. In temperate regions, the early varieties are sensitive to early bolting but under subtropical conditions, this problem is not much since the vernalization effect of low night temperature is counteracted by high temperatures during the day with the result that mean temperature hardly goes below 10°C. The high temperature after planting delays the bolting of plants that have been vernalized on the seed bed. It grows well with a monthly average temperature of 15°–20°C, maximum and minimum average being 24°C and 4.5°C. In late varieties, low temperature does not have stimulating effect on bolting in early stages. It is vernalized in the later stages only as other biennial cole crops when the plant has made some growth. It can withstand extreme cold and frost better than other cool season crops.
Varieties that are susceptible to bolting lack a juvenile phase and become generative without producing knobs if exposed after germination to low temperature. When the low temperature occurs at the knob formation stage, the round and flat round varieties produce long oval-shaped knobs. The low temperature or frost conditions sometimes develop the anthocyanin pigments on knobs or plant parts. These pigments are intensified, if there is lack of N and P in soil, deteriorating the quality of knobs, especially of green types.
Knol-khol can be grown on all types of soils. A soil rich in manures and fertilizers produces excellent knobs. Sandy loam is ideal for an early crop and clay or silt loam for higher yield and late crop. It does not grow well in highly acidic soil. The optimum pH is 5.5–6.8.
Varieties
Some of the promising varieties available in India are Sutton’s Earliest Purple (Sutton), Golith White (Sadashiv), Early White Vienna, King of the Market and Early Purple Vienna (Verma, Pocha). Although research stations and some private seed companies are engaged in testing and maintenance of varieties, no serious attempt has been made for the improvement of the crop as the available introductions are well-suited to our conditions. The recommended varieties are:
King of North
            It has a plant height of 20–30cm foliage is dark green, knob flattish-round, leaf sheath large and well-spread over the knob. It matures 60–65 days after transplanting.
In Europe, Wiesmoor Forcing White and Gaugels Forcing White are resistant to bolting and mature 30–45 days after planting. These are early varieties characterized by the horizontal position of the lower leaves. The late varieties mature 70–100 days after planting. The earliest variety in this group is Purple Speck while Goliath, is late.
Large Green
It has green, round, large-sized knobs with small tops. The knobs are tender, delicately flavoured with white flesh. It is ready for harvesting in 76 days with an average yield potential of 225–250q/ha. It has been recommended for mid and high hills of the western Himalayas.
Purple Vienna
This is about one week late than White Vienna. Knobs are purplish-blue with greenish-white flesh. It has purple leaves. It requires 55–65 days for knob formation with slightly better yield potential than White Vienna.
White Vienna
            This is an early variety with globular, light green, smooth, tender, medium-sized knobs having creamy-white tender flesh with delicate flavour. Its plants are dwarf, leaves and stems are medium green. It has a yield potential of 150–200q/ha. It matures 55–65 days after transplanting. Early White Vienna has dwarf plants, short tops and globular round knobs. It takes 50–60 days for knob formation.
Cultivation
            Knol-khol is usually propagated by seed, the seed rate being 1–1.5kg/ha. Seed should be given a hot water treatment (50°C) for half an hour against black rot and Apron 35 @ 2g/kg seed against downy mildew before sowing in disease-prone areas. The seedlings are raised in the nursery beds. About 4–6 weeks old seedlings are ready for transplanting.
Generally, 60cm wide and 2.5m long nursery beds are prepared. For 1m2 nursery 100g of fertilizer mixture containing 15g each N, P and K and 2.5–4kg farmyard manure mixed well in soil and raised nursery bed must be prepared with 30cm channel along with the nursery. On light and drought sensitive soils, sunken nursery beds are preferred. Acidic soils should be limed. For minimizing the seedling damage, the nursery beds should be treated with formalin (40% formaldehyde diluted in 5–6 parts of water). Soil is saturated with this solution, requiring 5 litres/m2. Fumes are then confined by covering nursery beds with burlap or canvas or polythene for 2 days and then the soil is aerated well for at least 4 days before sowing. This treatment can be replaced by the use of Captan (0.3%) for soil drenching. Seeds are sown in rows at a distance of 5–6cm for ease in manual hoeing, weeding and thinning. In too close spacing, the seedlings are liable to be attacked by damping off disease and become lanky. Proper spacing results in stocky and vigorous seedlings. A depth of 1.5–2cm is optimum since deeper sowing delays the germination. The nursery bed is covered with grass to conserve moisture for uniform germination. It is watered as and when required with watering can. The mulch is removed just before the seed germination to control damping off, drenching with Dithane M-45 (0.2%) is recommended. Nitrogenous fertilizer (urea) may be added in the spray when the seedlings growth is poor. However, excessive N results in tender and lanky plants that show poor establishment after transplanting. Seedlings are hardened in the nursery by restricting the water supply for about a week before transplanting in the field to enable them to withstand the shock of transplanting.
Planting
In the plains of north India, planting may be done in September, while in the milder winter regions, October is best time for planting. In the hills of northern India, seeds are sown from March–April to August. About 5–6 week old seedlings are transplanted for summer and autumn crops. The growing of nursery in March– April needs protection from cold and frost for which low cost polyhouses may be used.
Preparation of land is done by 2–3 ploughings, firstly with soil turning plough and after ploughings with ordinary plough/tiller or disc harrow to get fine tilth. The beds and channels are prepared to facilitate irrigation. Transplanting of seedlings is done in the evening and/or on cloudy days. The soil around the plant should be well pressed to establish contact with the roots. This process should be followed by light irrigation. The dead plants should be replaced and gaps be filled 5–6 days after transplanting. The transplanting is done at a closer spacing of 25cm × 25cm, 25cm × 30cm, 25cm × 40cm or 30cm × 45cm depending on climatic conditions and fertility of the soil. The yield is more in close spacing but the size of knobs is reduced. The early varieties may be planted at closer spacing while the late ones require wider spacing.
Manuring and fertilization
            Knol-khol responds well to manuring, as it is a heavy feeder. A yield of 20 tonnes/ha removes about 100kg N, 85kg P and 170kg K. Excess of N may cause abundant leafy growth and a delayed crop. Split application of N is more beneficial. Half of N along with full quantity of P and K are applied at the time of transplanting. The remaining half N is applied in 2 equal split doses, 3 weeks after transplanting and the other at the knob development stage. The farmyard manure is added to soil 4–6 weeks before transplanting. Optimum N and K doses are necessary to get good flavoured knobs.
The deficiency of B, Mo and N may induce physiological disorders such as browning, whiptail and buttoning. Foliar application of urea (1–2%) to correct the N deficiency is useful and economical. Multiplex (0.2–0.3%) can be added in the spray to correct the general micronutrient deficiencies. However, to correct deficiency alone, 10–15kg/ha of borax as soil application or 2 sprays of 0.3% borax on the crop are beneficial. In highly acidic soils, Mo deficiency can be overcome by liming or soil application of ammonium molybdate @ 200–300g/ha at a concentration of 0.01–0.1%.
Aftercare
Steady growth is of utmost importance. Any check in the growth causes knobs to be fibrous and woody. On the other hand, too rapid growth after slow initial growth may result in cracking knobs though a lot of varietal variation exists. The knobs may become elongated in close spacing due to lack of light as in knobs growing in the shade. The production of elongated knobs may also be induced by high temperature and excess of N. Cracking of knobs also occurs if the long-dry spell is followed by moist conditions or irrigation, because of increased root pressure.
The intercultural operations are performed mainly to check the weed growth to make the soil loose and to maintain proper moisture condition. Since its root system is shallow, hoeing is done to keep the crop weed-free. Presence of weeds in the early stages reduces the yield due to poor growth of the plants. Timely hoeings help check the weed population. As soon as the weeds start appearing, shallow hoeing should be done. Once the weeds are well-established, their removal disturbs the root system of plants resulting in weak growth. No sooner the soil is covered with foliage, hoeing is stopped. Hoeing during the knob development stage is discouraged and weeds if any removed by hand.
Treflan (Trifluralin @ 0.5 litre/ha) and Semeron (Desmetrayne @ 1kg/ha) applied before transplanting control both monocot and dicot weeds. Use of black polythene mulch for controlling weeds can also be made. Recently the effectiveness of Stomp (Pendimethalin @ 1–2kg/ha) in controlling weeds has been recommended. Practice of a weedicide application supplemented with 1 or 2 hand hoeings is useful and economical.
Irrigation
            Knol-khol requires a continuous supply of moisture for uniform growth and development of knobs. First irrigation is done immediately after transplanting and thereafter irrigation is done when needed, depending on soil and weather conditions. Irrigations at 15 days interval are adequate. Heavy irrigation should be avoided. Irrigation should be applied when the moisture content of the soil has dropped below 50% of field capacity. At the time of maturity of knobs, irrigation is detrimental.
Harvesting and Post harvest management
The knobs are harvested by cutting the stem just below it by a sharp knife or sickle before they are fully grown. After that they become tough and woody. The demand is fairly high for knobs of smaller size of about 5–8cm diameter. In preparing the produce for the market, the root portion is removed and the plants are tied in bunches along with the tender leaves. It is also marketed after removing both leaves and roots.
The knobs of early varieties may have an average weight of 200–250g while those of late ones weigh up to 1kg. Generally, the yield may vary from 12–30t/ha.
**********
1. In knolkhol ___________ variety is commonly grown in India?
2. Commercial part of knolkhol is ______________
3. Mode of pollination of knolkhol ___________
4. Botanical name of knolkhol__________
5. Chromosome number of knolkhol.

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origin, area, production, varieties, package of practices for onion
Allium cepa L. (2n = 2 x = 16)
(Hindi: Pyaz)

Onion is valued for its bulbs having characteristic odour, flavour and pungency, which is due to the presence of a volatile oil – allyl-propyl-disulphide.  Pungency is formed by enzymatic reaction when tissues are broken.  Bulbs are suited for storage for a long period and for long distance transport.  It is used as salad and cooked in many ways in curries, fried, boiled, baked and used in making soups, pickles etc.  Value addition in onion is done by marketing dehydrated onions and onion flakes.  Onion bulb is rich in minerals like phosphorus (50 mg / 100 g) and calcium (180 mg / 100 g).  Many medicinal uses are reported for bulbs and is commonly used as diuretic and applied on wounds and boils.  Onion greens are also used by harvesting crop at pencil thickness and when small bulb is formed.
India is the second largest producer of onion in the world, next to China and ranks third in export of onions, next to Netherlands and Spain.  During 2001-2002, a total of 52.52 lakh metric tones of bulbs was produced from an area of 4.96 lakh hectares in India.  Maharashtra is the leading onion producing state in India followed by Karnataka and Gujarat. The crop is grown on extensive scale in Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan and Bihar.
Origin and taxonomy
Onion originated in Asia.  According to Vavilov (1951), onion originated in Pakistan.  Jones and Mann (1963) proposed the area comprising Pakistan, Iran and mountain areas to the North as primary centre of origin of onion.
The following types of onions are grown in India:

1. Common onion (Allium cepa var. cepa) – with large bulbs born singly and propagated through seeds.  It is mainly used as salad or in curries.

 Multiplier onion or potato onion (Allium cepa var. aggregatum) – producing small bulbs borne in clusters and generally propagated through small bulbs.  Mainly used for seasoning curries.

2.Shallot (Allium cepa var. ascalonicum) – Produces bulbs in clusters on surface of soil.  This perennial onion rarely produces seeds and is propagated through bulbs.

3. Tree onion or Egyptian onion (Allium cepa var. viviparaum / proliferum) – This viviparous plant produces a perennial underground bulb and is not widely cultivated.  The bulb-lets produced in place of umbel are used for pickling and seasoning.  Bulb-lets are also used for propagation.
   

Capsules                                              Walking onions

 Walking onion flowers        Onion sets growing green stalks of their own

4. Chive (A. schoenoprasum) (2n=16, 24, 32).  This is a hardy perennial bunching herb grown for their hollow green leaves.  It is propagated by root division and is tolerant to extreme cold and drought.
   

In addition, a perennial bunching species, A. fistulosum is very common in China and Japan and is grown for its edible tops and leaf bases.

Botany
Onion is a biennial herb with a characteristic smell.  The leaves are tubular and the bulbs are formed by the attachment of swollen leaf bases to underground part of stem which is small and rudimentary.  Flowers are produced during second phase after formation of bulbs.  Flowering structure is called an ‘umbel’, which is an aggregate of many small inflorescences (cymes) of 5-10 flowers.  Length of peduncle commonly known a ‘scape’ varies with variety.  Though individual flowers are hermaphrodite, they are cross pollinated due to protandry.  Cross pollination is achieved by honey bees when they visit flowers for nectar.  Stigma becomes receptive 3-4 days after shedding of pollen grains.  Artificial selfing is done by covering all umbels of a plant together and by shaking or rubbing each other or by introducing flies.
Male sterility
Jones and Clarke (1943) reported male sterility formed by interaction of nuclear gene and cytoplasmic factor.  It is presumed that there are two types of cytoplasm – normal (N) and sterile (S).  All male sterile plants have ‘S’ cytoplasm which is inherited maternally through egg.  A recessive gene ‘ms’ in homozygous condition results in sterile pollen grains when carried in plants with ‘S’ cytoplasm [S(msms)].  Plants with ‘N’ cytoplasm  [N(MsMs)], N(MsMs), N(msms) and plants with genetic constitution S (MsMs) and S (Msms) are fertile.  Besides modifier genes, environmental factors also cause variation in expression of male sterility.

Male sterile plants ([S (ms ms)] are usually designated as ‘A line’.  They can be maintained by crossing with male fertile ‘B line’ having fertile cytoplasm – N (msms).  B line can be identified by crossing ‘A line’ with several other lines and if the progeny turns out to be completely male sterile in a particular case, that particular parent will be considered as B line with N (msms).  Fertility of ‘A line’ can be maintained by crossing with ‘C line’ having a

constitution of N (Msms) as pollen parent.  Progeny segregates in the ratio of 1 male sterile: 1 male fertile.  ‘C line’ is generally designated as fertility restorer line.
Climate
            Onion is a cool season vegetable and grows well under mild climate without extreme heat or cold or excessive rainfall.  It does not thrive when the average rainfall exceeds 75-100 cm during monsoon period.  The young seedlings withstand freezing temperature.  The ideal temperature for vegetative growth is 12.8 – 23.0oC.  For bulb formation it requires long days and still higher temperature (20-25oC).  Even though onion is treated as a long day plant, for bulb formation and its development, varieties differ in their response to length of day.  Most of cultivars grown in plains of North India are short day cultivars.  Long day varieties will not produce bulbs under short day conditions and short day cultivars if planted under long day conditions will develop early bulbs.  For seed production, temperature has more relevance than photoperiod.
Varieties
            Onion varieties differ in size, colour of skin, pungency, and maturation etc. of bulbs.  Large sized bulbs are mild in pungency and are sweet in taste compared to small sized onions.  Red coloured cultivars are more pungent than silver skinned varieties and keep better in storage.  Yellow cultivars have less demand in the market.  The local cultivars are known and marketed after the names of places where they are grown.  Poona Red, Nasik Red, Bellary Red, Patna Red and Patna White are common in onion trade.
            Most of the improved varieties were developed through mass selection from local collections of segregating populations.  A brief description of improved varieties is given below:

                               
Hybrid vigour
IIHR, Bangalore has developed F1 hybrids like Arka Kirtiman, Arka Lalima and Arka Pitamber.  A brief description of the above hybrids is given below :

Arka Kirtiman – F1 hybrid of CMS 65 x Selection 13-1-1.  Suitable for kharif and rabi seasons, bulbs medium size and dark red, yield 45-60 t/ha, good keeping quality, suitable for export to Gulf countries.
Arka Lalima – F1 hybrid of MS 48 x Selection 14-1-1, bulbs globe shaped an deep red each weighing 120-130 g, good shelf life of 5 months, tolerant to purple blotch, suitable for export to Gulf countries.
Arka Pitamber (IIHR Yellow) – Short day variety with globe shaped yellow bulbs, average bulb weight 80 g, moderately resistant to purple blotch, yield 35-38 t/ha.
Soil
            Onion prefers a well drained, loose and friable soil rich in humus.  It is sensitive to high acidity and alkalinity and the ideal pH is 5.8 to 6.5.

Methods of planting
The following three methods of planting are followed depending on soil, topography, climatic conditions and economic aspects:

1. Raising seedlings and transplanting
2. Planting bulbs directly in the field.
3. Broadcasting or drilling of seeds directly in the field.

Transplanting method
This is the most common method practiced for irrigated crop as it results in high yield and large size bulbs.  In plains, seeds are sown during October-November for a Rabi crop.  In hills, seeds are sown from March to June.  Seeds are first sown in well prepared nursery beds of 90-120 cm width, 7.5-10.0 cm height and convenient length.  Raito between nursery area and main field is about 1:20.  Seed rate varies from 8 to 10 kg/ha.  Seedlings of 15 cm height and 0.8 cm neck diameter are ideal for transplanting and this is achieved in 8 weeks.  However, it varies from 6-10 weeks depending on soil, climate and receipt of rain.  There is a practice of topping seedlings at the time of transplanting if seedlings are over-grown.
For transplanting, the land is brought to a fine tilth by thorough ploughing, leveling and breaking clods.  The field is then divided into small plots of convenient sizes for irrigation and seedlings are transplanted at 15 x 8-10 cm spacing.
Planting of bulbs
This method is practiced in hill slope and in terrace cultivation since seedlings are easily washed off in rain.  Medium to small sized bulbs alone are used for plating since large sized bulbs result in early bolting and high cost.  Medium sized bulbs obtained from a seedling planted June crop are used for planting in September – October after giving a month rest.  Bulbs are dibbled at 15 cm apart on the side of 45 cm wide ridges or in beds or in furrows depending on soil or climate.  10-12 quintals of bulbs are required to plant one hectare.
Broadcasting or drilling method
Direct sowing by broadcasting or drilling at 30 cm apart is practiced in some areas to save labour for transplanting.  Here seed requirement is as high as 25 kg / ha.  Care should be taken to remove weeds during initial stages to prevent smothering of seedlings by weeds.  Usually weeding is done at 10 days interval for the first 1-2 months.  When bulbs are 6-8 weeks old, seedlings should be thinned to proper distance which usually synchronizes with gap filling.
Manures and fertilizers
Onion is a heavy feeder of nitrogen and potash and a crop yielding 35 t/ha requires 120 kg N, 50 kg P2O5 and 160 kg K2O, 15 kg Mg O and 20 kg sulphur.  Apply 20-25 tones of farmyard manure at the time of first ploughing so that it may get mixed thoroughly during subsequent ploughings.  Entire dose of P and K should be applied at the time of final land preparation.  Nitrogen should be top-dressed in two equal splits, first half 3-4 weeks after transplanting and second half two months after transplanting.
Application of fertilizers in Tamil Nadu : 
Apply FYM 25 t/ha, Azospirillum 2 kg and Phosphobacteria 2 kg/ha, N 30 kg, P 60 kg and K 30 kg/ha as basal and 30 kg N/ha on 30th day of sowing.
Irrigation
Onion is mainly grown as a irrigated crop in India.  Frequency of irrigation depends on soil and climatic conditions.  Requirement of water varies with stages of crop.  It requires less water immediately after establishment of seedlings and consumption goes on increasing with maximum requirement before maturity, around 3 months after transplanting, and thereafter it is reduced.  So irrigate the crop at 13-15 days interval during early stage followed by subsequent irrigations at 7-10 days interval.
Weeding and inter-culture
During early stages of the crop, plants grow slowly and it is essential to remove weeds.  Pre-plant incorporation of Basalin (2 kg a.i./ha) along with one hand weeding at 45 days after transplanting is recommended to control weeds.  Being a shallow rooted crop, deep inter-culture operation is likely to injure roots and reduce yield.  Generally two hoeings are essential for making soil loose and to cover bulbs.
Harvesting and yield
            Onion is ready for harvest in 3-5 months after transplanting depending on variety.  Harvesting is done by pulling out plants when tops are drooping but still green.  During hot days when soil is hard, bulbs are pulled out with a hand-hoe.  Yield varies with season and variety.  15-25 tonnes of bulbs are expected from one hectare of transplanted crop.  Yield of kharif crop is comparatively low.
Rainy season onion cultivation
Onion was grown during rabi season only.  Development of varieties suitable for rainy season is a significant achievement in onion breeding and it resulted in cultivation of onion in kharif season also.  Varieties like N-53, Agrifound Dark Red, Baswant 780 and Arka Kalyan are suitable for growing in rainy season.  For a successful crop, seeds are sown by end of May or June, transplanted in August and harvested in December-January.  In kharif season, yield will be less and ranges from 15-20 t/ha.
Green onion or Spring onion
Consumption of green onion is almost equal to that of dry onion in the world.  Both bulb-forming and non-bulb forming types are used as green onion.  For green onion production, seeds are sown in August, transplanted in October and harvested after 75-80 days at tender stage.  Varieties like early Grano, Pusa White Flat and Pusa White Round are suitable for green onion purposes.  Yield ranges from 40-45 t/ha.
Post-harvest handling
It is estimated that 60-65% of onion produced in India is consumed internally, 5% exported and 30-40% lost by post harvest damage.
Curing
Sprouting and rotting are common problems in storage since bulbs contain high moisture.  The bulbs should be adequately cured for proper development of skin colour and to remove field heat before storage of bulbs.  It is done till the neck is tight and outer scales are dried.  This will prevent infection of diseases and minimize shrinkage loss.  Bulbs are cured either in field or in open shade or by artificial means before storage.  During kharif season, bulbs are cured for 2-3 weeks along with top.  In rabi, bulbs are cured in field for 3-5 days; tops are cut leaving 2.0-2.5 cm above bulb and again cured for 7-10 days to remove field heat.
Storage
After curing, bulbs are stored in well ventilated rooms by spreading them on dry and damp proof floorings or on racks.  Periodical turning of bulbs and removal of rotten and sprouted bulbs is highly essential.  A pre-harvest spray of maleic hydrazide (2000-2500 ppm) prevents rotting and sprouting of bulbs stored at room temperature.  At BARC, Trombay irradiation of bulbs with very low doses (4000-9000 krads) of gamma rays is effective for preventing sprouting and enhancing storage life of onion bulbs.
Bulbs harvested from kharif crop do not store well for long period.  At 0-2-2.2oC under cold storage, bulbs can be stored for long period.  NHRDF and NAFED erected storage structures in Nasik for helping farmers.  Three types of storage structures, viz., Panipat type 2-tiered, 3-tier onion store and 2-tier model were established by Government itself investing heavily.
Grading
These necked, bolted and decayed bulbs are removed. Cured bulbs are graded based on size, and depending on market to which it is sent.  Big sized onion is in demand in New Delhi, medium sized in Kolkata, Patna and small sized onion in North Eastern regions of the country.
Marketing
Between farmers and consumers, several intermediaries are involved in marketing of onions.  After entry of NAFED in onion trade, farmers’ co-operatives are playing a key role in marketing.  Lasalgoan is the biggest onion market in India.  November – June is the peak period of onion in market.
Export
India is the third biggest exporter of onion, next to Netherlands and Spain, in world.  Major export is to Gulf countries, Malaysia, Singapore, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh.  Export of onion is channelised through NAFED.  Depending on preference of colour and size of bulbs, different varieties are exported.  Middle East countries prefer light red to dark red bulbs.  In Malaysia preference is for dark red bulbs.  In America and Japan, demand is for yellowish or brown onion having mild pungency.  Europe and Japan markets prefer large sized bulbs while in Singapore, demand is for small onions.
Onion accounts for major share (nearly 75%) of vegetables exported from India.  Export of 4.4 lakh tones of fresh onion worth of Rs. 332.43 crores during 2001-02 was increased to 8.33 lakh tones worth of Rs. 621.09 crores during 2004-05.  During 2004-05 share of fresh onion export was 3.8% of the total export earning from agriculture sector.  Major importers for Indian onion are Bangladesh, Malaysia, UAE and Sri Lanka.  About 90% of export from India is of big onion (4-6 cm diameter) and 10% of small onion (3-4 cm diameter) and multiplier onion.  Large onion exported to Malaysia, Gulf countries, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh etc. and small and multiplier onion to Bangladesh, Singapore and Malaysia.  Colour preference also varies with the country.  Middle East countries demand light red to dark red, Malaysia dark red, Sri Lanka dark red to light red and Bangladesh small onion of light red to dark red.  European countries, Japan and America prefer yellowish or brown onions having mild pungency.
Dehydrated onion
Popularity of dehydrated onion is increasing now-a-days.  Advantages of dehydrated onion are storage stability and ease of preparation.  Commercial processing plants prescribes a shrinkage ratio of 7:1 to 17:1 with a moisture content of 4% in final product.  Dehydrated onions are sold in many forms as slices, chopped, minced, granulated and powdered.
            Bulbs for dehydration should have the following characteristics:

1. Devoid of any green patches so that it may not develop discoloration on drying.  White onions are preferred to red or yellow onions.
2. TSS should be 15-20o Brix in common onion and 25oBrix in multiplier onion.
3. Onion with small neck and root zone and those with tall globe shape are preferred than flat types to permit greater efficiency in topping.
4. Large bulbs are preferred due to economy in harvests.
5. Pungency should be high since dehydrated product is primarily sued as flavouring agent.
6. The bulb should have good stability with minimum shrinkage loss and rotting.  Moisture content should be around 80%.

South Port White Globe and White Cresole are primarily used for dehydration in Central California and Central America.  Varieties like Pusa White Red, Pusa White Flat, S-48 and N-257-9-1 and Udaipur-102 are suitable for dehydration purposes.
Seed Production
Onion is a cross-pollinated crop and isolation distance of 1000-1600 m and 500 m is recommended for production of foundation and certified seeds, respectively.  Two methods of seed production are followed-seed to seed method and bulb to seed method.  Even though seed yield is more under seed to seed method, bulb to seed method is followed for production of quality seeds.
In bulb to seed method, bulbs are produced as for market and bulbs with desired quality are replanted for seed production.  Bulbs are replanted in first fortnight of October.  Normally medium sized bulbs of 2.5 to 3.0 cm diameter are planted on the side of ridges or on beds at 45 x 30-45 cm spacing.  1000 kg bulb is required to plant one hectare. Flower stalks will be produced during third month after planting of bulbs and seeds ripen within six weeks after formation of flower clusters.  Heads are harvested when seeds turn black in colour, but before seeds are shed.  Seeds are dried in well ventilated rooms under shade and are stored.  Seed yield is 800 – 1000 kg / ha.
Seed production of varieties which do not store well in storage is done by seed to seed method.

Multiplier Onion
(Syn : Aggregatum onion)
(Allium cepa var. Aggregatum) (2n = 2x = 16)
(Hindi : Cotta pyas)

Multiplier onion is used mainly for seasoning of curries.  Unlike common onion, it is propagated through bulb-lets.  The small bulbs grows into large ones which again break into smaller ones.
Unlike common onion, multiplier onion comes up well under tropical condition with sufficient soil moisture.  Heavy rain during germination and bulb formation stage is highly deleterious for the crop.  It prefers well drained loamy soil.
Varieties
The Tamil Nadu Agricultural University developed four varieties viz., Co.1, Co.2, Co.3, Co.4 and CO On 5 and NHRDF, Dindigul one variety – Agrifound Red.  A brief description of the varieties is given below:
CO.1 – Bulbs large and pink, 7-9 bulbs / clump, yield 9-10 t/ha in 85 days.
CO.2 – Bulbs large and crimson, 7-9 bulbs / clump, yield 12 t/ha in 65-70 days.
CO.3 – Bulbs pink with a weight of 75 g, 8-10 bulbs / plant, moderately resistant to thrips, good storage quality, yield 15.8 t/ha in 65 days.
CO.4 – Bulks attractive light pink, 9-13 bulbs / plant.  Average weight 90 g/lump.  Yield 19 t/ha in 65 days.
COOn 5 – High bulb yield (18.91 t/ha), free flowering and high seed setting
ability, propagation through seeds.
Agrifound Red – Each clump weights 65 g with 5-6 light red bulb-lets, TSS 15-16oB, yield 18-20 t/ha in 65 days.
Under Tamil Nadu condition, bulbs are planted during April-May.  As in common onion, field is ploughed to fine tilth and ridges and furrows are prepared at 45 cm apart.  Medium sized bulbs are planted at a distance of 10 cm on either side of ridges.  1500 kg of bulbs are required to plant one hectare.  As in common, seedlings raised from seeds are also used for planting.  Cultural practices are same as in common onion.  Yield varies from 10-15 t/ha with a crop duration of 2-3 months.
*********
1. India stands second in the production of _________ crop
a. Tomato        b. Chillies         c. Onion          d. Bhendi
2. In onion, the outer skin colour is due to the presence of ________
a. Anthocyanin            b. Carotene                 c. Querctin                 
d. Lycopene
3. The pungency of onion is due to the presence of __________
4. Sprouting in onion is controlled by spraying ___________
a. IAA              b. Cytokinin                 c. Gibberllins   d. Maleic hydrazide
5. The maximum viability of onion seed is upto _______ months
a. 8                  b. 14                            c. 16                            d. 24

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Origin, area, production, varieties, package of practices for GARLIC

Garlic (Allium sativum) is one of the important bulb crops grown and used as a spice or condiment throughout India. It is also important foreign exchange earner for India. It is consumed by almost all people who take onion. Garlic has higher nutritive value than other bulb crops. It is rich in proteins, phosphorous, potassium, calcium, magnesium and carbohydrates. Ascorbic acid content is very high in green garlic.

Nutritive composition of fresh by peeled garlic cloves and dehydrated garlic powder is as follows:
Nutritive Value of Garlic

            Healthy garlic bulbs contain allicin, colourless, odourless and water-soluble amino acids. On crushing the garlic bulbs the enzyme allinase breaks down into allin to produce allicin of which the principal ingredient is odoriferous diallyl disulpide. Garlic contains about 0.1% volatile oil. The chief constituents of oil are diallyl disulfide (60% ), diallyl trisulfide ( 20% ), allyl propyl disulfide ( 6% ), a small quantity of diethyl disulfide and probably diallyle polysulfide. Diallyle disulfide possesses the true garlic odour. Garlic has been cultivated for thousands of years. It is the most ancient cultivated vegetables giving pungency of the genus Allium. Original abode of garlic is said to be Central Asia and Southern Europe especially Mediterranean region. Some authorities consider that Allium longicuspis Regael, which is endemic to Central Asia, is the wild ancestor and spread in ancient times to Mediterrenean region. It is known in Egypt in Predynastic times, before 3000BC and also to ancient Greeks and Romans. It has long been grown in India and China. Garlic was carried to the Western hemisphere by the Spanish, Pourtuguese and French. Garlic was not liked by Romans due to strong odour. It was used in England as early as first half of the 16th century. The early domestication of garlic took quite different turn from that of seed propagated leek and onion. Garlic became exclusively vegetatively propagated by cloves or bulbils. Some cultivars are reported to produce flowers but there is no seed setting. Garlic cultivars differ in maturity, bulb size, clove, clove size and number, scale colour, bolting and flowering habits.
Area, Production and Productivity
The production and productivity of garlic in India are very low compared to many other countries. Unawareness of farmers about improved varieties, climate, soil and agro-techniques, diseases and pest damaging the crops and their control measures as well as post-harvest management are though main reasons, inadequate market support is also responsible for limiting the production and productivity indirectly.
VARIETIES
Garlic varieties, Agrifound White, Yamuna Safed, Yamuna Safed 2 and Yamuna Safed 3 have been notified by the Government of India. The varieties developed by NHRDF are given below:
Agrifound White
The variety was notified by Govt. of India in 1989 vide notification no. 28(E) dated 13/4/1989. The variety was developed by mass selection from a local collection obtained from Biharsharif area in Bihar. The bulbs are compact, silvery white with creamy flesh. Bigger elongated cloves with 20-25 in numbers. Diameter 3.5 to 4.5 cm size index 12-15 cm2. The variety is susceptible to purple blotch and stemphylium blight which are common in the northern parts. TSS 41% dry matter 42.78% and good storer. The yield is 130 q/ha. It is recommended for cultivation in the areas where there is not much problem of purple blotch or stemphylium blight in rabi season.

YAMUNA SAFED (G-1)
This variety was notified by Govt. of India in the year 1991 vide notification no.527 (E) dated 16/8/1989. It was developed by mass selection from a local collection obtained from Delhi (Azadpur) market. The bulbs are compact, silvery white skin with creamy flesh. Diameter 4.0 cm to 4.5 cm. Sickle shaped cloves, 25-30 in number, size index of bulb 12-15 cm2, diameter of cloves 0.8 to 1.00 cm. The variety is tolerant to insect pests and diseases like purple blotch, stemphylium blight and onion thrips. TSS 38%, dry matter 39.5% and good storer. Yield 150-175 q/ha. It is recommended for cultivation all over the country.

YAMUNA SAFED-2 (G-50)
The variety was notified by Govt. of India in the year 1996 vide notification no.115 (E) dated 10/2/1996. It was developed by mass selection from a local collection obtained from Karnal area in Haryana. The bulbs are compact attractive white creamy flesh, bulb diameter 3.5-4.0 cm, size index 11-12 cm2,, number of cloves 35-40, diameter 0.75 – 14 cm. Clove size index 1.75-2.5 cm2,, 10 bulb weight 160-240 g, TSS 38-40%, dry matter 40-41%. Average yield 150-200 q/ha. The variety is recommended for Northern India.
YAMUNA SAFED-3 (G-282)
The variety has done very well in Northern parts and also in Central parts of India. It was developed by mass selection technique from a local collection obtained from Dindigul (TN) in 1990. The leaves are wider than other varieties. Bulbs are creamy white and bigger sized (5-6cm dia). Size index 27-29cm2, diameter of cloves 1.2-1.5 cm. 15-16 number of cloves per bulb TSS 38.42%, dry matter 39-43%, medium storer. Average yield 175-200 q/ha. The variety is suitable for export. The variety was notified in the year 1999 vide notification no.1092 (E) dated 26/10/1999.

AGRIFOUND PARVATI
            This variety was developed in 1992 by selection from an exotic collection obtained from Hongkong market. The variety is long day type and as such is suitable for cultivation in mid and high hill of Northern states. Bulbs are of bigger size (5-6.5 cm), creamy white colour with pinkish tinge. Size index 16-72 cm2, diameter of cloves 1.5 to 1.8 cm, 10-16 cloves in number tolerant to common disease. Average yield 175-225 q/ha, medium storer. Suitable for export.
YAMUNA SAFED-4 (G-323)
          The variety has done very well in Zone VI. It was developed by mass selection technique from a local collection obtained from Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh in 1988. Leaf wide, Bulb- compact, attractive creamy white colour, creamy flesh, bulb diameter 4-5 cm, size index 14-16 cm2, no. of cloves 18-23 per bulb, diameter of cloves 0.75-1.0 cm, cloves  size  index 1.8-2.0 cm2, Matures in 165-175 days. Yield 200-250 q/ha. Storage quality is better than Yamuna Safed-3. Suitable for exports. The variety was notified by Government of India in 2006 vide notification no. S.O. 597(E) dated April 25,2006.
MEDICINAL VALUE
            Garlic is one of the important bulb crops grown and used as a spice or a condiment throughout India. According to the Unani and Ayurvedic systems as practised in India, garlic is carminative and is a gastric stimulant and thus help in digestion and absorption of food. Allicin present in aquous extract of garlic reduces cholesterol concentration in human blood. The inhalation of garlic oil or garlic juice has generally been recommended by doctors in case of pulmonary tuberculosis, rheumatism, sterility, impotency, cough and red eyes. Garlic possesses insecticidal action. About 1% garlic extract gives protection against mosquitoes for 8 hours. Extract of garlic along with chilli and ginger has beneficial action against soil nematodes. Beneficial use of garlic extract has been found against many fungi.
AGRO TECHNIQUES
            Garlic is frost hardy plant requiring cool and moist period during growth and relatively dry period during maturity of bulbs. Bulbing takes place during longer days and at high temperature, exposure to low temperature subsequent to bulb formation, favours the process. The critical day length for bulbing of 12 hrs. along with, temperature also affects bulbing. Exposures of dormant cloves or young plants to temperature of around 200C or lower depending upon varieties for 1-2 months hasten subsequent bulbing.
SOIL
            Garlic can be grown on a variety of soils but it thrives better on fertile, well-drained loam soils. The pH of soil between 6 and 7 is suitable for good crop. Highly alkaline and saline soils are not suitable for garlic cultivation.
PLANTING

            The time of planting differs from region-to-region. It is planted from August to October in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, and from September to November in Northern plains of India. In Gujarat, planting is done during October-November. Proper season for planting in higher hills in Northern part is March-April. It can also be, however, planted during September-October. In West Bengal and Orissa, October-November is best time for planting.
Cloves of 8-10 mm diameter since give increased yield of better quality, care should be taken to select bigger cloves from outer side of bulbs. About 500 kg cloves of 8-10 mm diameter are required to plant one hectare.

MANURES AND FERTILIZERS
            Garlic responds very well to organic manures. For a normal soil 50 tonnes of farmyard manure, 100 kg N, 50 kg P and 50 kg K/ha through chemical fertilizer has been recommended. Micronutrients also increase its yield potential.
IRRIGATION
            In general, garlic needs irrigation at 8 days intervals during vegetative growth and 10-15 days during maturation. As the crop matures (when the tops first begin to break over or become dry), stop irrigation to allow field to dry out first. Continued irrigation as the crop matures causes the roots and bulb scales to rot. This discolour the bulbs and exposes outer cloves and decreases the market value of bulbs. Irrigation after long spell of drought results in splitting of bulbs. Excessive irrigation results in sprouting.
INTERCULTURE
First weeding is done one month after planting and second one month after first weeding. Hoeing the crop just before the formation of bulbs (about two-and-a-half months after sowing) helps in setting of bigger sized well filled bulbs. Pendimethalin @ 3.5 litres or Goal @ 0.25 kg/ha + 1 hand-weeding gives good control of broad leave weeds.
HARVESTING AND CURING
Garlic becomes ready for harvesting when its tops turn yellowish or brownish and show signs of drying up and bend over. G 282 is early-maturing cultivar. Harvesting at the stage when tops have fallen over gives good quality bulbs. Bulbs are taken out along with tops and windrowed gathering several rows in each row for curing.
YIELD
The yields of bulbs vary from 100 to 200q/ha depending upon variety and regions.
SEED PRODUCTION
Garlic is propagated by cloves. Well-grown compact bulbs of uniform shape and size are selected. The cloves having 8-10 cm size are used for planting. The planting method and other operations followed for production of seed are the same as for bulbs production.
POST- HARVEST MANAGEMENT
Many operations are performed for getting mature and quality bulbs from the field to the consumer. About 15-50% losses occur if proper post-harvest management practices are not followed. These practices differ from place-to-place. Proper curing, sorting and grading, transportation and storage are essential to minimize these looses.

DRYING AND CURING
            Drying and curing are very essential. Drying is done to remove excess moisture from outer skin and neck to reduce storage rot, while curing is an additional process of drying to remove the excess moisture and to allow the colour development and help the bulbs to become compact and go into dormant stage. It is done for about a week in the field for drying. The method and period of curing vary depending on weather at the time of harvesting. Bulbs are covered along with their tops to avoid damage to bulbs from sun. These are also cured for 7-10 days in shade either with tops or after curing the tops by leaving 2.5 cm above the bulbs and removing the roots. Harvesting at 100% neck fall and curing by windrow method have been recommended. The curing in field till foliage turns yellow should be done. Artificial curing can be done by passing hot air at 27.35ºC through the curing room. It takes about 48 hours for complete curing process if humidity is between 60 – 75%.
SORTING AND GRADING
            Garlic bulbs after curing are run over a grader or graded manually before their storage or marketing. The thick- necked, splitted, injured, and diseased or bulbs with hollow cloves are sorted out. Size grading is done after sorting. It is very much necessary for getting better price and to minimize losses on account of drying and decay. Government of India has prescribed certain grade designations for different qualities of garlic for export. The grade designations and definition of different qualities of garlic have been prescribed.
PACKAGING
            In India, garlic bulbs are packed in open mesh jute bags for domestic use. It is packed in bags of 90 and 40 kg capacity each in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and other garlic, growing states respectively. As per the garlic grading and packing rules, 18 and 25 kg packing are done in perforated 10 ply corrugated cardboard boxes for export. Nylon-netted bags used for packing and further storage cause minimum losses in storage. In foreign countries, plastic-wooven bags are very commonly used. These have good strength and are also attractive. Since garlic needs less ventilation compared to onion, there is a need to develop suitable packaging to reduce drying loss.
STORAGE
            Thoroughly cured garlic bulbs are stored well in ordinary well-ventilated rooms. Garlic with dried leaves can be stored by hanging in well-ventilated rooms. This is, however, not possible on commercial scale because space requirement is more. Storage without tops in nylon-netted bags give better performance at Nasik and Karnal as such the same has been recommended for storage to minimize loss. In Jamangar area (Gujarat), some pockets of Indore and Mandsaur, Madhya Pradesh and Manipuri and Etah district of Uttar Pradesh, bulbs are stored for 6-8 months. Since garlic stores well for market under a wide range of temperature, controlled conditioned (low temperature) storage are not necessary. Cloves sprout quickly at 4.4ºC and prolonged storage in this temperature range should be avoided. Storage at 0.5ºC is satisfactory, but high humidities often accompany low temperature storage. Garlic stored at humidity higher than 70% at any temperature develop mould and start rotting. Cold storage of garlic is possible at 32-36ºF and 60-70% relative humidity. The storage loss of 12.5% is recorded in garlic stored at 1-5ºC and 75% relative humidity compared to 42.4% losses in ambient temperature. UV light treatment for 30 minutes further reduces loss to 8% in cold stores for 150 days storage.
            Irradiation with 2-6 krad of cobalt 60 gamma rays have also been recommended for controlling sprouting in storage. The irradiation given to bulbs within 8 weeks of harvesting (before sprout initiation) can inhibit sprouting effectively, reduce weight loss and can prolong storage life for about one year. Doses higher than 10 Kr reduce diallyl disulfide content which gives typical garlic flavour. Storage life of garlic is prolonged and loss in eight is also reduced by spraying 3000 ppm MH 3 weeks before harvesting. Yamuna Safed (G 1), Yamuna Safed-2 (G 50) and G 323 are better storer. Pre-harvest spraying of 0.1% carbendazim and disinfection of premises for handling and storage of garlic also reduce post-harvest losses particularly decay loss. Phosphorus and potassium application reduce weight loss in garlic storage while nitrogen application increases it.
PLANT PROTECTION
            Garlic is attacked by many diseases and insects pests. Therefore garlic growers need to know the details of symptoms of diseases and insect pests attacking garlic and their control measures for getting healthy crop. Diseases and insects pests, and their control measures attacking garlic crop are described as under:
DISEASES
PURPLE BLOTCH
            Purple blotch (Alternaria porri) appears on leaves as small whitish sunken lesions with purple centres that rapidly enlarge. The leaves fall over gradually. Spraying of Mancozeb @ 2.5 g/litre of water at 15 days intervals gives good control.
STEMPHYLIUM BLIGHT
            Stemphylium blight (Stemphylium vesicarium) appears as small, yellow to orange flecks or streaks on leaf. These soon develop into elongated, spindle-shaped to ovate elongate, diffused spots, often reaching the leaf tips. They usually turn gray at the centre, brown to dark olive brown with the development of conidiophores and conidia of the pathogen. The spots frequently coalesce into extended patches blightening the leaves and gradually the entire foliage.
CERCOSPORA LEAF BLIGHT
            Caused by Cercospora duddiae, this disease appears on leaves as small, ash-coloured and irregular shaped spots scattered on leaf lamina. The spots coalesce gradually and results in blightening of foliage. Spraying of ziram or captan @ 2.0 g/litre of water or copper oxychloride @ 3.0 g /litre of water at fortnightly intervals gives good control.
POWDERY MILDEW
            Powdery mildew is caused by Leveillula taurica. Distinct pale-yellow patches of variable size on abaxial surface of leaf associated with powdery mass are its main characteristics. Sulphur fungicides @ 2.0 g/ litre of water if sprayed at regular intervals of 15 days after disease appearance gives good control.
MOSAIC DISEASE
            Garlic plants infected with mosaic virus show typical symptoms of chlorotic mottling and strips on first emerging leaf followed by pale-yellow broken stripes, resulting in typical mosaic pattern on matured leaves. Yellowish dots on leaves, whitish leaf margin or twisting of leaves are also recorded on a few cultivars. Generally symptoms are mild on younger leaves than on matured leaves. Bulbs harvested from mosaic affected plants after maturity remains smaller in size and cloves are fewer in number. Since virus is transmitted through aphids, spraying of monocrotophos @ 0.5 ml/litre of water or methyl demeton @ 0.75 ml/litre of water is useful.
INSECT PESTS
THRIPS
            Thrips (Thrips tabaci) are perhaps the most important insect pests attacking garlic. They are most common during warm weather. They feed on leaf surfaces, causing them to whiten or silver. They are slender about 1/25″ long usually hide in angles of leaves. Spraying of Malathion @ 1 ml/ litre or methyldemeton @ 0.75 ml/ litre of water gives good control if sprayed at frequent intervals. Four sprays of fluvalinate (0.04%) at fortnightly interval at Karnal and malathion (0.1%) at Nasik gave best performance in controlling thrips. Phorate @ 1 kg ai/ha at planting and 30 days after planting controls thrips effectively.
STEM AND BULB NEMATODE
            Caused by Ditylenchus dipsaci, it is a tiny worm almost invisible to the naked eye which invades the tissues of garlic, and can seriously reduce the yield. The infestation causes the basal portion of mature plants to swell and become spongy and frequently broken by longitudinal splits. The tissue rots, the leaves and stems become rotten and twisted and the plant is stunted. In severely infested plants, basal plants may be so rotted that it pulls away when the plant is lifted, leaving the roots in the ground. The nematodes are, however, not common in garlic in India.
Pre-planting soil fumigation with dichloro-propene-dichloropropane mixture @ 500 kg/ha is recommended. Ethylene dibromide and dibromochloropropane (Nemagon) should not be used as these leave residues in soil.
MITES
            The eriophyid mite, Aceria tulipae, a common pest of garlic is so small that its infestations are frequently over-looked. Young garlic plants injured by mites usually have destroyed and twisted leaves with conspicuous yellow or light green streaking. The leaves may not emerge readily from the cloves and leaf blades separate poorly after emergence. Bulbs stored for long period may be severely attacked by mites. The cloves wither and bulbs lose their firmness.
RHIZOGLYPHUS CALLAE AND GLYCOHAQUS DOMESTICUS
            These may attack on bulbs in storage. Fumigation of dry bulbs with methyl bromide after harvesting and before storage controls the mites. Application of methyl bromide @ 1kg/1000 cubic feet for 2 hours at 26ºC is recommended.
PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS
            Sprouting of bulbs in the field is noticed sometimes towards the start of maturity stage of bulbs particularly when there are winter rains or excessive soil moisture and nitrogen supply. This disorder is, however, not of permanent nature and varies from variety-to-variety. Early-planting also causes sprouting. Splitting is also noticed sometimes in some varieties, which is due to delayed harvesting or irrigation after long spell of drought. For past few years rubberification problem is noticed in Rajkot area and also Nilgiri hills of Tamil Nadu. It is increasing day-by-day. The actual cause for the disorder was since not identified, a trial was planned in collaboration with TNAU at HRS, Ooty, during 1995-96. The effects of insecticides, fungicides, micronutrients and growth regulator were studied. It was observed that rubberification was totally controlled by application of micronutrients i.e. zinc sulphate and ammonium molybdate. It was also controlled by neem cake insecticides and growth regulator like GA.
            Further studies are required to eliminate this problem in different areas as the incidence is noticed variably in different areas.
            The aerial bulbil formation is also quite common in garlic where lower temperature prevails for more periods or there is more temperature variation. It, however, does not affect much on yield or quality of bulbs and varietal variation is noticed where G-282 is seen more prone for this type of effect.
            The rubberification and premature sprouting of bulbs are main physiological disorders in garlic. The reasons for these disorders are summarized as under for hill grown garlic in Tamil Nadu.

• Rubberification and premature sprouting of bulbs are noticed mostly in fields which are located in low-lying areas of watershed where there is heavy deposition of nutrients along with silt during heavy rains.

• These problems are severe in garlic fields which are more frequently irrigated than the normal requirements of garlic bulbs.

• With the application of higher levels of nitrogen, there is an increased level of pre-mature sprouting of bulbs which results in splitting and rubberification of bulbs.

• Rubberification incidence also increases when higher level of nitrogen is applied in the form of urea.

• Due to increased levels of nitrogen, in addition to the increased production of rubberized, there is an increased level of thrips incidence in leaves during the later stage of crop. The thrips lacerate leaves and cause severe damage to the crop. Through lacerated wounds by thrips, there is a severe incidence of blast disease, caused by Botrytis allii, when crops is 70-90 days old, which further deteriorates the quality of garlic bulbs.

• Short duration type of garlic (Mettupalayam type) is more susceptible than long duration type (Singapore type).

• Premature sprouting of bulbs is more in the crop (April-August) when there is high moisture level in soil at maturity of crop due to heavy rains.

• Delayed harvest during rainy season has increased premature sprouting and splitting of bulbs.

• Wider spacing of cloves at the time of planting increases uptake of nitrogen and water by the individual plants which increases premature sprouting and rubberification of garlic bulbs.

*********
1. Economic part of Garlic is _________
a. bulb             b. root              c. umbels        d. cloves

2. _________ is a frost hardy bulbous perennial erect herb.
a. Leek                        b. Onion          c. Garlic          d. Bunching onion
3. ________ is a crop that is grown only in rabi season
a. Tomato        b. Brinjal          c. Onion          d. Garlic
4. The pungency in garlic is due to the presence of ______________
5. In garlic _______ application at inflorescence stage enhance bulblet formation

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Origin, area, production, varieties, package of practices for PEAS
 Peas – (Pisum sativum L.) (2n = 14) – (Hindi : Matar)

Pea (Pisum sativum L.), the famous plant in which G.H. Mendel worked out Mendel Laws and Genetic Principles, is a noble and aristocratic vegetable. The crop is cultivated for its tender and immature pods for use as vegetable and mature dry pods for use as a pulse.  In both cases, seeds are separated and used as vegetable or pulse. Peas are highly nutritive and contain high content of digestible protein (7.2 g / 100g), Carbohydrate (15.8 g), Vitamin-C (9 mg), phosphorus (139 mg) and minerals. Tender seeds are also used in soups. Canned, frozen and dehydrated peas are very common for use during off-season. Like any legume crop, pea is an integral component of sustainable agriculture due to its soil enriching and conditioning properties.
Origin
Vavilov (1926) listed different centres of origin for pea. Area comprising Central Asia, the Near East, Abyssinia and the Mediterranean is the centre of origin based on genetic diversity.  Cultivated garden pea is not seen in wild state and it might have been originated from wild field pea or other related species.
Botany
Pea is a diploid with 2n=14.  Field pea with coloured flowers belong to Pisum arvense and the garden pea with white flowers belong to P. sativum. Pea is a herbaceous annual plant with tap root system.  Stem is upright, slender and usually single.  Leaves are pinnately compound with the rachis terminating in a single or branched tendril.  There are large stipules at base of leaf.  Inflorescence is a raceme arising from axils of leaves and individual flowers are typical papilionaceous.  Gynoecium is monocarpellary with ovules (up to 13) alternately attached to placenta.  Style bends at right angle to ovary and stigma is sticky.  Pods are straight or curved and seeds are smooth or wrinkled.

Varieties
Pea cultivars grown in different parts of the world exhibit wide variation in height of stem, branching, pod size, seeds per pod, shelling percentage, smoothness of seeds (smooth / wrinkled) etc.
The cultivars / varieties are grouped based on various characters as given below:
Basal on maturity period

• Early types – green pods will be ready for harvest by 65 days after sowing.
• Mid season types – pods will be ready for harvest by 85-90 days after sowing.
• Late main season types – pods will be ready for harvest by 110 days after sowing
• Based on height of plant
• Bush or dwarf types
• Medium tall
• Tall

Usually dwarf types are early and mid season types are medium tall.  Late types are tall and require support.
A brief description of improved varieties is given below:

* Varieties released / identified by AICRP (Vegetables)
In addition to the above improved varieties, cultivars like Asauji, Alaska, Meteor, Early Badger etc. are also very popular among farmers.
Climate
Pea is typically a cool season crop and thrives well in cool weather.  Optimum temperature for seed germination is 22oC.  Even though seeds germinate at 5oC, speed of germination is less.  At higher temperature, decay of seedlings is more.  Early stage of crop is tolerant to frost.  But flowering and fruit development are adversely affected by frost.  Optimum monthly mean temperature for growth of plants is 10-18.3oC.  As temperature increases the maturity is hastened and yield is reduced.  Quality of pods produced is also low at high temperature due to conversion of sugars to hemicellulose and starch.
Soil
Crop prefers well drained, loose and friable loamy soil for early crop and clayey soil for high yield.  Ideal pH is 6.0-7.5 and it grows under alkaline soil.  If soil is acidic, liming is recommended.
Season
In plains of North India, pea is sown from beginning of October to middle of November.  Yield is drastically reduced when crop is sown after 4th December (Chaubey, 1977).  Crop sown in September will be susceptible to wilt disease.  In hills, pea is sown in March for summer crop and in May for autumn crop.
Sowing and seed rate
Soil is prepared to a fine tilth by disc ploughing followed by one or two harrowing.  Seeds are sown in flat or raised beds by broadcasting or by dibbling at 2.5-5.0 cm depth.  Early varieties are sown at a closer spacing of 30 x 5-10 cm and the seed rates is 100-120 kg/ha.  Mid season and late varieties are sown at wider spacing of 45 x 10 cm.  Late varieties are sown on either edge of raised beds which are 120-150 cm wide with furrows in between.  Seed rate for late varieties is 80-90 kg/ha.  Overnight soaking of seeds in water or GA 3 (10 ppm) improves germination.
Manure and fertilizers
A crop yielding 4-5 tonnes of green peas removes 55 kg N, 20 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O.  High does of N have adverse effect on nodule formation and N fixation.  N at 25 kg/ha is sufficient to stimulate early growth of pea.  Phosphatic fertilizer increases yield and quality by increasing N fixation and nodule formation.  Potassium fertilizers also increase N fixation ability of plants and yield.  In addition to 10 tonnes of farmyard manure, a fertilizer dose of 25 kg N, 70 kg P2O5 and 50 kg K2O are recommended for one hectare and the entire dose is drilled at the time of sowing seeds.  If fertilizers are coming in contact with seeds, there will be severe injury to seeds.  Fertilizer should be applied in bands at 7-8 cm away and 2.5 cm deeper from seeds.  Application of sodium molybdate @ 40 kg/ha either as per or post emergence spray is reported to increase yield and collar rot resistance in peas.
Application of fertilizers in Tamilnadu
Apply FYM at 20 t/ha and 60 kg N, 80 kg P and 70 kg K/ha as basal and 60 kg N/ha 30 days after sowing.
Irrigation
Pea, like any legume vegetable, is sensitive to drought and excessive irrigation.  Excessive irrigation immediately after sowing results in poor germination due to hard crust formation.  Excessive irrigation in earlier stags increases vegetative growth.  Light irrigations t 10-15 days intervals is given for pea.  Flowering, fruit set and grain filling periods are critical stages and care should be taken to irrigate crop at these stags.  Four irrigations at pre-bloom, pod set and fruit picking stages are recommended for variety Bonneville under Bangalore conditions.
Weed control
Care should be taken to remove weeds in early stags of crop.  Lasso (alachlor) @ 0.75 kg a.i. or tribunal @ 1.5 kg a.i./ha or pendemethalin 0.5 kg a.i. / ha as pre emergence spray along with one hand weeding at 25-45 days after sowing is very effective for weed control.
Inter-culture
When plants are 15 cm high, tall varieties should be stacked with wooden sticks or twigs for trailing.  A single row of stakes fixed in middle of raised bed will support both rows of plants in each bed.
Earthing up and hoeing is also important operations in peas and helps in root development and growth of plants.  This is usually done after weeding and fertilizer application.
Harvesting
Since tender peas with high sugar content fetch premium price in market, care should be taken to harvest pods at correct maturity.  During maturity, sugar content decreases and polysaccharides and insoluble nitrogen compounds like protein increases.  Calcium migrates to seed coat and becomes tougher during ripening.  Toughness of seeds is determined using Tendrometer, especially for processing purposes.  Peas with low tendrometer reading is offered high price.
Many workers calculated heat units to ascertain maturity and harvesting of peas.  Number of degree hours above 4.4oC required to bring a variety to maturity is calculated and it varies from variety to variety.
Peas for fresh market are harvested when they are well filled and when colour changes from dark green to light green.  Usually 3-4 harvests at 10 days intervals are possible.  Green pod yield varies with duration of variety and is 2.5-4.0 t/ha for early varieties, 6.0-7.5 t/ha for mid season varieties and 8.0-10.0 t/ha for late varieties.  Shelling percentage ranges from 35-50.  Seed yield varies from 2.0 to 2.5 t/ha. Peas after harvesting are packed in gunny bags or crates.  Fresh unshelled peas can be stored for two weeks at 10oC and 90-95% RH.
Pests and Diseases
Stem fly, pea aphid, leaf miner and pod borer are major pests and wilt and root-rot, powdery mildew, rust, Ascochyta blight and pod rot are major diseases of pea.
*********
1. Botanical name of peas _______________
2. Origin of peas _________________
3. Chromosome number of peas _____________
4. ___________ is an example for edible poded variety of pea
5. Peas are highly rich in ____________

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Origin, area, production, varieties, package of practices for FRENCH BEANS
(Syn: Snap bean, String bean, Kidney bean, Haricot bean, Fresh bean)
(Phaseolus vulgaris L.) (2n = 22)
(Hindi: Vilaiti sem)

French bean is an important cool season legume vegetable grown for its tender pods, shelled green beans and dry beans (Rajmah beans).  In western countries, processed pod consumption is quite high.  100 g of green pods contain 1.7g protein, 4.5 g carbohydrates, 221 I.U. vitamin – A, 11 mg vitamin-C, 50 mg calcium etc.  Dry beans are rich in protein.
Origin and Taxonomy
Genus Phaseolus originated in New World.  Following four species are under cultivation in New World:

1. Phaseolus vulgaris – French bean
2. P. coccineus – Runner or Scarlet bean
3. P. lunatus – Lima bean, Butter bean or Madagascar bean
4. P. acutifolius var. latifolius – Tapery bean

All the given species are diploids with 2n=22 and self-pollinated except              P. coccineus, which is cross-pollinated.  French bean, the most important species under Phaseolus, is originated in central and South America (Kaplen, 1981)

.P.vulgaris                                                                   Phaseolus coccineus

White Tepary Beans

 
Botany
French bean has tap root system with poor nodule formation.  Leaves are trifoliate.  Though a self-pollinated crop, French bean offers wide variability for plant growth (bushy / climbing), colour of pod (green / waxy coloured), cross section of pod (flat / oval / round), pliability (stringed / string less) etc.

 Varieties
There are specific varieties for snap bean purpose, dry bean purpose and for processing.  Processing varieties are very popular in the USA.  A brief description of improved varieties is given below:

* Varieties released / identified by AICRP (Vegetables)

In addition to the above improved varieties, cultivars like Kentucky Wonder (pole type with long, flat and stringless pods), Premier, Giant Stringless, Bountiful etc. are also very popular among farmers.
Climate
French bean is a day neutral cool season vegetable and tolerates high temperature better than peas.  Optimum monthly temperature for cultivation of French bean is 15-25oC compared to 10-18oC for peas.  It is sensitive to high rainfall, frost and high temperature.  Pole types tolerate high rainfall better than bushy varieties
Soil
Soil requirements are same as that of pea.  Ideal soil pH for growth of French bean is 5.5 – 6.0
Season
In plains of North India, French bean is sown during two seasons viz., July-September and January-February.  In hills, sowing is done from March to May.
Land preparation and sowing
Land is ploughed to a fine tilth and divided into plots of convenient size.  Ridges and furrows are prepared by ploughing after a basal dose application of farmyard manure.  Field is irrigated once and seeds are sown under optimum moisture condition on side of ridges 2-3 days after irrigation.  Spacing and seed rate vary with varieties.  Early varieties are sown at a spacing of 45-60 cm x 10-15 cm and seed rate required is 80-90 kg / ha.  Pole types are sown at 1.0 m apart in hills @ 3-4 plants / hill and seed rate is much less (25-30 kg/ha.).
Manure and fertilizers
French bean responds well to application of lime and fertilizers.  In addition to 20-25 t. of farmyard manure, 50 kg N, 75 kg, P2O5 and 75 kg K2O are recommended.  Half of N along with full P and K should be applied as basal dose at the time of making ridges and furrows or one or two weeks after germination.  Apply remaining dose of N, one month after first application.
Application of fertilizers in Tamil Nadu
Apply FYM 25 t/ha at the last ploughing.  N 90 kg and P 125 kg/ha should be applied on one side of the ridges. For rainfed conditions of Shevaroy hills, apply as a basal dose of 62.5 kg/ha of Phosphorous as super phosphate and with another half of 62.5 kg/ha Phosphorous as FYM enriched super phosphate.
Intercultural operations
French bean is a shallow rooted crop and only light inter-cultural operations are practiced.  During early stages of crop, weeding followed by fertilizer application and earthing up can be synchronized.  A pre-sowing application of Fluchloralin @ 2.1 /ha checks weed growth for 20-25 days.
Water stress influences yield of French bean and crop is most sensitive at flowering and fruiting stages.  6-7 irrigations are required during growing season.
Staking is an important operation for pole types and bamboo sticks or any locally available materials should be erected when plants start vining.  Individual vertical stakes and horizontal canes at 40 cm distance are erected for encouraging growth and spread of plants.
Application of plant growth regulators like PCPA (2 ppm) and NAA (5-25 ppm) has favourable effect on fruit set and yield.
Harvesting and yield
Pods are harvested at full grown stage but immature and tender.  Pods are ready for harvest 7-12 days after flowering depending on varieties.  In bush varieties, 2-3 harvests and in pole types 3-5 harvests are made.  Quality of beans varies with harvests and best quality fruits are obtained in initial harvests compared to later harvests.  Loss of crispness during storage and in last harvest is attributed to loss of water and increase in water soluble pectin.
Seed weight is a major indicator of green bean harvest maturity.  Yield of tender pods varies from 8-10 t/ha in bush varieties and 12-15 t/ha in pole types.  Dry beans are harvested when majority of pods are fully ripe and colour turns yellow.  Seed yield varies from 1250 to 1500 kg / ha.
Pests and diseases
Crop is affected by pests like stem fly, thrips, mites, bean beetle, bean weevil, aphids etc.  Yellow mosaic, anthracnose, powdery mildew, rust, root rot and wilt and leaf spot are common diseases affecting French bean.

LIMA BEAN
(Syn: Double Bean) (Phaseolus lunatus L.) (2n = 22)

(Hindi : Lobia)

Dixie Speckled Butter Peas – Phaseolus lunatus

            Christmas Lima Beans – Phaseolus lunatus

Hopi Yellow Lima Beans – “Sikyahatiko” – Phaseolus lunatus

Lime bean is a cool season vegetable requiring dry and cool climate with an average rainfall of 50-62.5 cm.  Compared to other legumes, it is a long duration crop and is retained in field for 9 months.  Lima bean is an important crop in Maharashtra.
Cultivation practices
In Maharashtra, crop is grown after sugarcane.  After harvest of sugarcane, land is ploughed to fine tilth and seeds are sown in hills @ 2-3 seeds / hill at a distance of 180 x 120 cm during July.  Seed rate required is 8-10 kg/ha.
When plants start vining, they are trained to trellis made with vertical bamboo poles with horizontals tied at a distance of 45 cm.  Height of trellis is up to 150 cm and they are usually erected along direction of wind.
Lima bean responds well to manuring and fertilizer application.  Irrigation and other timely inter-cultural operations required are same as that of other legume vegetables.
Harvesting
Plants start flowering 80-85 days after sowing and pod formation takes place one month alter.  First harvest is obtained four months after sowing, i.e., by November and it extends up to March.  On an average, 12-14 harvests are possible at an interval of 15-16 days.  Yield varies from 8-12 t/ha.

BROAD BEAN
(Vicia faba L.) (2n = 12, 14)
(Hindi: Bakla)

Broad bean, also known as faba bean or horse bean, is the only bean, sown in autumn and is grown as a winter crop in high elevations.  It is a hardy plant and withstands low temperature as low as 4oC.  The crop is widely cultivated in Latin America and is grown in India in a limited scale in northern states having low temperature.  It tolerates salinity to a certain extent.  Broad bean is sued as tender bean, green shelled bean, and dry bean and as cattle feed.
Plants are more or less vine like and grow erect without branching to a height of 60-125 cm.  Stem is square in cross section and flowers are pollinated by insects.  Pods are borne in upright clusters of 5 or more in axils of leaves.  Green pods grow parallel to stem.  It is about 15 cm long and 2 cm wide with slightly round in cross section with 5 or more beans.

 Varieties
Masterpiece White Long Pod, Masterpiece Green Long Pod, Imperial White Windsor and Imperial Green Windsor are some of the introduced varieties.  Jawahar Selection 73-31 is an improved selection from Madhya Pradesh.  A few selections made at Bihar are BR-1 (black seeded) and BR-2 (yellow seeded).  M/s.Suttan Seeds developed a dwarf type ‘Suttan White Seeded’.

 Cultivation
Broad bean requires low temperature for its cultivation.  Crop is tolerant to water stress due to protein accumulation.  It tolerates water-logging and salinity.  Seeds @ 70-100 kg/ha are sown in shallow channels spaced at 75 cm.  In each channel, seeds are sown in double rows at spacing of 25 cm.  Cultivation practices are similar to that of pole type pea.  Plants are stacked with wooden sticks.
Tender pods are harvested at green shell stage, 3-4 months after sowing.  Under favourable conditions, crop yield is 7-10 t. of green pods and 1-1.2 t. of green beans/ha.
Application of fertilizers in Tamilnadu
Apply 25 of FYM and 50 kg P and 25 kg K/ha as basal dose.  25 kg N and 25 kg of K/ha are applied between 20-25 days after sowing and application of remaining 25 kg of N is done between 40-45 days.

Anasazi Beans(Phaseolus vulgaris)

Bolita Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris)

Purple Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris)

Hopi Black Pinto Beans  (Phaseolus vulgaris)

Little White Ice Beans  (Phaseolus vulgaris)
********

1. Origin of French bean is _____________.
2. In India, the largest area under temperate leguminous vegetable is _____.
a. Peas                        b. French bean                        c. Snap bean               d. Butter bean
3. For seed germination the temperature required for lima bean is ________.
4. Origin of broad bean is ___________.

5. Lima bean can be grown at an elevation of __________ MSL

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Origin, area, production, varieties, package of practices for CLUSTER BEAN
(Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.) (2n = 14)
(Hindi: Guar)

Cluster bean is a drought tolerant warm season crop grown for its tender fruits for use as vegetable.  Fruits are rich in food value and each 100 g contains 10.8 g carbohydrate, 3.2 protein, 1.4 g minerals, 316 IU vitamin-A and 47 mg vitamin-C.  It is also sued as a nutritious fodder for livestock.  Mucilaginous seed flour is used for making guar gum (galactomannan) utilized in textile, paper, cosmetic and oil industries throughout the world.
Origin and botany
        

  Diverse opinion on exact origin of cluster bean is still prevailing.  Dry regions of West Africa as well as India are treated as centres of origin of cluster bean by various workers.  African species, Cyamopsis senegalensis is the ancestor of cluster bean. 

Botany
Cluster bean is an erect annual, growing to a height of up to 3 in with stiff erect branches.  Stem is angled and leaves are trifoliate.  Small white or purple flowers are borne on axillary racemes.  Fruits are compressed, erect and 4-10 cm long.  Each fruit has 5 to 12 white to grey or black coloured seeds.
Varieties
Varieties grown in India differ in height of plants.  Cultivars grown in South India are vegetable types while those in North-West India are grown for seeds.  There are giant and dwarf types in cluster bean.  Vegetable types are mostly dwarf types with smooth appearance.  Fodder types are mostly hairy.
Some of the improved varieties developed at IARI, New Delhi are :

• Pusa Domausami –Suitable for rainy season.  Late and branching variety with 80 days to first picking.  Pods smooth, light green and 10-13 cm long.
• Pusa Sadabahar –Suitable for summer and rainy season, non branching type.  Pods green and 12-13 cm long.
• Pusa Navbahar – Non branching variety with pod quality of Pusa Mausmi.  Developed by crossisng Pusa Domausami and Pusa Sadabahar.

Sharad Bahar is a branching variety developed at NBPGR.  It produces 12-14 branches with an average yield of 133 pods / plant.
Climate and soil
This hardy and drought tolerant crop comes up well during summer and rainy season in well-drained sandy loam.  It cannot tolerate shade and prefers long day condition for vegetative growth and short day condition for flowering.
Land preparation and sowing
Main rainy season crop is sown during June-July and extended up to September-October.  Summer crop is raised by sowing during February-March.  Field is prepared to a fine tilth by ploughing and harrowing.  Seeds are either broadcasted or dibbled behind country plough at a distance of 25-30 cm.  Seeds are also dibbled at specified spacing of 45-60 cm x 15 cm.  Seed requirement is 25-30 kg/ha.
Manure and fertilizers
Though a hardy legume, cluster bean responds to fertilizer application.  In addition to 25 t. of farmyard manure, a fertilizer dose of 50:60:60 kg NPK / ha is recommended.  Half N, full P and K are applied as basal dose and remaining N, 25-30 days after.
Application of fertilizers in Tamil Nadu
Apply FYM 25 t, Azospirillum2 kg and Phosphobacteria 2 kg / ha, N 25, P 50 and K 25 kg/ha as basal and 25 kg N/ha 30 days after sowing.
Intercultural
The field is kept free of weeds during initial stages.  Though a hardy crop, irrigation increases yield.  Irrigation at flowering and fruiting stages is the most critical.  For getting high yield in vegetable types, irrigation may be done at 7-10 days interval.
Stacking is also necessary to avoid lodging in tall varieties.
Harvesting and yield
Harvesting starts 40 days after sowing and pods are harvested at tender stage.  A vegetable yield of 5-8 tonnes and seed yield of 0.6 to 1.0 t/ha are expected within crop duration of 120 days.
Pests and Diseases
Most of pests affecting other legume crops also attack cluster bean.  Fusarium wilt, bacterial blight, powdery mildew and anthracnose are major diseases affecting the crop.
*******
1. Among the peas and beans __________is a hardy crop.
a. Peas                        b. Cluster bean            c. Lablab beans           d. French bean
2. Gaur gum is a product of ____________.
3. Cluster bean is a __________ rooted crop.
4. Spraying of __________@ 2000 ppm would increase the yield of cluster bean.
a. GA               b. CCC            c. IAA              d. NAA
5. Other name for cluster bean is ________________.

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Origin, area, production, varieties, package of practices for HYACINTH BEAN (Syn: Indian bean) Lablab purpureus L. (Syn: Dolichos lablab, D. purpureus) (2n = 22, 24) (Hindi: Sem)

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Origin, area, production, varieties, package of practices for COW PEA
 (Syn: Southern pea, Black eyed pea, Yard long bean)
(Vigna uniguiculata) (2n = 22, 24)
(Hindi: Lobia, Chouli)

Cowpea is a typical warm season crop adapted to tropics.  The crop is used in a variety of ways.  Tender pods are used as vegetable and dry beans as pulse.  Due to its nutritive value and soil improving properties, it is also used as a fodder, green manure and cover crop.  Being a legume crop, cowpea fits well in inter-cropping system.  In Kerala, it is grown as a floor crop in coconut gardens, as an inter-crop in tapioca, fringe crop in rice fields and in garden lands.  The crop is an integral part of sustainable agriculture.  100 g of green tender pods contain 4.3 g protein, 2.0 g fibre, 8.0 g carbohydrates, 74 mg phosphorus, 2.5 mg iron, 13.0 mg vitamin-C, 0.9 mg minerals, etc.  (Africa is considered as primary centre of origin of cowpea).  Confusion prevailed in the taxonomy of cultivated cowpea and related wild species was solved to a great extent by Summerfield et. al . (1974) and Ng and Marechal (1985).
Taxonomy and botany
Three cultivated sub-species have been identified under the species Vigna unguiculata to which cowpea belongs:

1. 1. V. unguiculata ssp. Unguiculata (dual purpose type)
   2. V. unguiculata ssp. Cylindrical (Syn:
   3. V. Unguiculata ssp. Catjang, V. Sinensis ssp. Catjang( (grain type)

1. V. Unguiculata var. Sesquipedalis (vegetable type).

    Vigna unguiculata ssp. cylindrical           Vigna unguiculata var. sesquipedalis
Some do not agree on the distinct subspecies status to each of the above three.  Ng and Marechal (1985) renamed subspecies unguiculata, cylidrica and sesquipedalis   as cultigroups. Unguiculata, Biflora and Sesquipedalis respectively under V.unguiculata.
Cultigroup unguiculata is most diverse of cultivated V. unguiculata and is widely distributed.  It is commonly known as cowpea.  This is prostrate, semi-erect, erect or climbing.  Pods are linear, in axillary racemes.  Seeds are small and kidney shaped.
Sesquipedalis, known as yard long bean or asparagus bean is used as vegetable.  It is climbing or trailing.  Pods are 30-90 cm long, pendulous, fleshy and tending to shrink when dry.  Seeds are elongated and kidney shaped.
All the three cross each other.  In a cross between V. unguiculata spp. Unguiculata (2n=22) and V. Unguiculata var. Sesquipedalis (2n=24), F1, had 2n=23.
Botany
Cowpea is a diploid with 2n=2x=22.  It is a vigorously growing annual herb with strong tap root system.  Growth habit ranges from erect to climbing with profuse branching.  Stem is cylindrical and twisting.  Inflorescence is an un-branched axillary raceme bearing several flowers at terminal end of peduncles.  Length of peduncle varies from 5-60 cm.
Anthesis takes place early in morning between 6.30 and 9.00 a.m.  The process of opening corolla takes 45-60 minutes.  Dehiscence of anthers is much earlier and it varies from 10.0 p.m. to 00.45 a.m.  For hybridization purpose, emasculation is to be done 20 hours before flower opening.  Safest time for emasculation is morning hours preceding day of anthesis.  Stigma becomes receptive from 12 hours before blooming to 6 hours after anthesis.
Climate
Cowpea is a warm season crop and comes up well between 21-35oC.  Grain types and dual purpose types are tolerant to hardy conditions including high temperature, drought and poor soil.  The climbing yard long bean prefers mild climate than grain types.  Performance of varieties varies with day length, rainfall and temperature.  Hence, specific varieties are to be selected for each season.
Even though, cowpea can be grown in any soil, fertile loose soil rich in humus is required for a prolonged harvest.
Varieties
Varieties and cultivars respond differently to photoperiod.  Brief descriptions of improved varieties are given below:

Season
            In areas where winter is mild, cowpea can be grown throughout the year.  In North Indian plains, it is sown during February-March as a summer crop.  In Kerala cowpea is grown throughout the year and June-July, September-October and December-January are main seasons.
Land preparation and sowing
            Land is prepared to a fine tilth by 2-3 ploughing and harrowing.  Field is divided into plots of convenient size and seeds of bushy varieties are dibbled at a spacing of      30 x 15 cm with 1-2 seeds per hole.  For semi-trailing varieties provide a spacing of      45 x 30 cm.  During rainy season, seeds are sown at the above spacing in raised beds of 90 cm width.  Trailing varieties are sown at the above spacing in raised beds of 90 cm width.  Trailing varieties are sown in pits of 45-60 cm diameter and 30-45 cm depth at a spacing of 2m x 2m with 3 plants / pit for trailing on bower.  Trailing varieties are also grown on trellis by sowing seeds in channels at 1.50 x 0.45 spacing.
            Seed rate required for various types are :

            In land, where cowpea is cultivated for the first time, inoculate seeds with Rhizobium for quick nodulation on roots and for fixing atmospheric nitrogen.

Manures and fertilizers
Kerala Agricultural University recommended a fertilizer dose of 20:30:10 kg NPK / ha along with 20 t. of farmyard manure for cowpea.  Yard long bean responds well to application of fertilizers.  Hence, a higher dose of 25:75:60 kg NPK/ha is also recommended in some other states.  Half of N along with entire dose of P and K should be applied at the time of final land preparation.  Apply remaining 15-20 days after sowing along with weeding and earthing up.
For yard long bean, apply fertilizers in several split doses at fortnightly interval for protected fruiting.  Drenching cow dung slurry in basins of plants and spraying cow dung supernatant liquid is also highly beneficial for trailing types.
Apply 250 kg lime or 400 kg dolomite / ha in acidic soils at the time of land preparation.
Irrigation
Cowpea, in general, is sensitive to water logging and requires less moisture compared to other vegetables.  Grain types require only 2-3 protective irrigations at flowering and pod development stages.  Water requirement of vegetable types with protracted and long fruiting phase is more than that of grain types.  Irrigate trailing vegetable types at 4-15 days interval depending on soil during pre-flowering phase.  Hardening of plants by restricting irrigation during pre-flowering stage is advantageous for avoiding excess vegetative growth and will induce early flowering.  Once plant starts flowering, provide frequent but light irrigation.  Excess irrigation and frequent rains during fruiting period induces vegetative phase at the expense of fruiting.
Interculture
Climbing types are usually trailed to bowers or trellis made of bamboo poles and coir or plastic wire for harvesting maximum yield.  Erect supports with wooden sticks for training plants to the bower when plants start vining.  To reduce cost of production, stretching of jute wires from base to bower is also a viable practice.
Shallow cultivation and earthing up is necessary during early stages of crop to check weed growth.  Fluchloralin (2 litres /ha) will effectively check weed growth for   20-25 days.  Once crop is covered, weeds will naturally be under control.
Light earthing up along with fertilizer application is also highly advantageous for better growth of plants.  This facilitates better root growth and prevents lodging of young seedlings.
Nipping of excess vegetative growth is a common practice for inducing flowering and fruiting in bush and semi-trailing cowpea varieties especially when there is rain during flowering and fruiting phase.

Plant growth regulators
Plant growth regulators are effective for specific purposes in yard long bean.  Spraying of NAA (15 ppm), 15 and 30 days after sowing is beneficial for inducing fruit set.  CCC is reported to induce tolerance to mosaic disease.
Harvesting and yield
Tender fruits are harvested after attaining full size but before they become fibrous.  Yard long been is usually harvested in alternate days and harvesting period extends up to 45 days under good management practices.  In bush varieties 2-5 harvests are possible.
Yield
Bush varieties                         –           4-5 t/ha
Semi-trailing varieties            –            7-8 t/ha.
Yard long bean varieties         –           15-18 t/ha
Seed yield     
Bush varieties                         –           750-1250 kg/ha
Semi-trailing varieties            –            1000-1500 kg/ha.
Yard long bean varieties         –           450-600 kg/ha
Pests and diseases
Vegetable cowpea varieties especially those belonging to succulent yard long bean are susceptible to a number of pests and diseases.  Pea aphids, serpentine leaf miner, stem fly, thrips, pod borers, leaf roller, hairy caterpillar etc. are major pests and fusarium wilt, rhizoctonia wilt, anthracnose, powdery mildew and mosaic are serious diseases affecting cowpea.
********
1. Botanical name for cowpea is ____________.
2. Origin of cowpea is ____________.
a. Central Africa          b. India            c. Europe        d. Japan
3. The green pod yield of cowpea is _________ q/ha.
4. Anthracnose of cowpea is transmitted by _______________.
5. The vector for cowpea mosaic virus is ____________.
a. Thrips          b. Water          c. Aphids         d. Jassids

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Origin, area, production, varieties, package of practices for POTATO
Family: Solanaceae
Botanical Name: Solanum tuberosum
Chromosome Number: 2n= 48
Origin and History

The probable centre of origin of potato is in South America in the central Andean region. Evidence indicates that potatoes were cultivated for centuries by South American Indians and the tubers were used as a common article of food. The Spaniards during invasion found this economic plant worthy of introduction into Europe. The Spanish people brought potato from Peru to Spain in 1565. Sir Francis drake probably brought them to England about 1586. Following its introduction in to European agriculture, potato became an important food crop of Italy, France, and Ireland. During the famine years, the potato crop became valuable food crop in Ireland. Potato was introduced to India from Europe in the beginning of the seventeenth century, probably by the Portuguese, who were the first to open trade routes to the east. The first mention of potato in India occurs in ‘Terry’s account of a banquet at Ajmer given by Asaph Khan to Sir Thomas Rao in 1615. Potato was grown in many gardens of Surat and Karnataka in about 1675. Cultivation of potato in northern hills started later than plains but became as cash crop much earlier. Cultivation of potato was beginning first in the Nilgiri hills in the 1822. The spread of potato is given in Figure1.
Nutritive value and uses
It is one of the important crop of the world. In India, it is used only as a vegetable. Sometimes it is also mixed with other vegetables. It is also used for making of chips, halwa, gulab jamun, rasgulla, murabha, kheer, guzia and barfi etc. According to Aykroyd (1941), it contains 74.7 per cent water, 22.9 per cent sugar, .6 per cent protein, 0.1 per cent fat, 0.6 per cent mineral matters, 0.01 per cent calcium, 0.03 per cent phosphorus and 0.0007 per cent iron, while according to Macgillivray (1953), it contains 77.8 per cent water, and food value per 100g of edible portion is energy 85 calories, protein 2 g, calcium 13 mg , vitamin A 40 IU, ascorbic acid 12 mg, thiamine 0.11 mg, riboflavin 0.06 mg and niacin 1.18 mg and according to Chatfield (1949) raw potato also contain in 100 g, edible portion: Na 3 mg, K 410 mg, Ca 14 mg, Mg 27 mg, Fe 0.8 mg, Cu 0.16 mg, P 56mg, S 29 mg and Cl 35 mg. The potato tuber may contain an alkaloid (Solanine), if it is exposed to light. It is poisonous compound but 70 per cent of it is removed when potatoes are peeled. This alkaloid may cause sickness or death both to live stock and the human beings. Nadkarni (1927) has reported the following medicinal uses of potatoes:
It is anti-scorbutic. Persons with neurotic and liver dyspepsia digest it well. It is also employed as an, diuretic and galactagogue, nervous sedative and stimulant in gout. The leaves in the form of extract are employed as an antispamodic in chronic cough producing effects as those of optimum etc. potato grind into a paste is applied as plaster to burns caused by fire with good results. The juice of the potato is a dark colored liquid due to the presence of citric and succinic acids. Potatoes may be mealy or non-mealy. Mealy potatoes are those in which the cells, on cooking, separate from one another so that they may be piled up in loose flour with air between them instead of remaining in a solid mass with water in the small intercellular spaces. But this is absent in immature potatoes due to low quantity of starch. Mealiness and high starch are associated with high specific gravity. According to Covdon and Boussard (1897) disruption of potatoes in cooking is partly due to turgidity of tissues, the more turgid they are more easily do they fracture and permit the ready penetration of boiling water.
Area and Production
In India out of total 5335447 ha of land under vegetables, potato occupies nearly 20.79 per cent area. The area (1109000 ha) under potato, during the year 1995-96 followed percentage change of –2.30, -10.56, -5.91 and 3.70 over 1991-92, 1992-93, 1993-94 and 1994-95, respectively. Production of potato was 18843300 MT during the year 1995-96, having 26.32 per cent share in the total vegetable production.  Production increased by 3.56, 1.97, 8.34 and 8.29 per cent over 1991-92, 1992-93, 1993-94 and 1994-95 respectively. The productivity of potato was 16.99 MT/ha, whereas the highest 24.4 MT/ha was of West Bengal in the country (NHB, 1998) potato is grown in almost all the states of India. It is mainly grown in the states like Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Punjab, Karnataka, Assam and Madhya Pradesh. The major potato producing belts in India are as given below (NHB, 1998).

1. Himachal Pradesh: Shimla, Lahul Spiti and Mandi.
2. Punjab: Jalandhar, Hoshiyarpur, Ludhiana and Patiala.
3. Haryana: Ambala, Kurukshetra, Hisar and Karnal.
4. Uttar Pradesh: Farrukhabad, Etawah, Manpuri, barabanki, Allahabad, Badaun, Moradabad, Agra, Aligarh, Mathura and Faizabad.
5. Madhya Pradesh: Sidhi, Satana, Rewa, Sagar, Rajgarh and Tikamgarh.
6. Chhattigarh: Sarguja and Raipur.
7. Rajasthan
8. Gujarat: Khera, Dissa, Baransh katha, Jamnagar, Baroda, Mehsana.
9. Orisa: Cuttack, Dhenkamal, Puri and Sambalpur.
10. West Bengal
11. Maharashtra: Pune, Satana, Kolhapur and Nasik.
12. Karnataka: Belgaum and Dharwad , Hassan, Kolar.
13. Uttaranchal: Almora, Pilibhit and Haldwani.
14. Andhra Pradesh: Medak and Chittoor.
15. Tamil Nadu: Dhinigulanna and the Nilgiris
16. Assam

Apart from India, the other major producers of potato in world are China, Russian Federal, Poland, USA, Ukraine, Germany,Netherlands and UK (NHB, 1998)
Classification, Botany and Floral Biology
Classification
The potato was first domesticated in the high plateau region of the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes and has been grown for several millennia. A total of seven cultivated species were domesticated and they remain the most important crop in the high Andean, regions, where the greatest genetic diversity of cultivated potato is concentrated (Engel, 1970). The cultivated potatoes species are as given below:
Table1. Classification and origin of the cultivated potatoes

The commercial potato generally belong to two species
Solanum andigenum: it is not very common. Plants have thin and long stem, small and narrow leaflets. Flowers are produced more profusely. It has long stolons and mostly coloured deep- eyed tubers.
Solanum tuberosum: It is more common, plants have shorter and thicker stem larger and wider leaflets.
In addition to two species, there are also some important species, which shows resistant to biotic and abiotic. Theses species are given in Table 2.
Table 2. Potato species resistant to biotic and abiotic

Potato can also be divided on the basis of origin and response to day length as given in Table 3.
Table3. Classification on the Basis of origin and Response of Day Length:

Potato can be classified into early and late varieties. They are given below in Table 4.
Table 4. Classification of potato on the Basis of Crop Duration

Varieties/Hybrids
KUFRI ALANKAR
It is a derivatives of the cross (Kennebee x O.N .2090) x (Majestic x Ekishiraju), released in 1968 by Central Variety Release Committee for plains of Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh and specially suited for sandy soils. Plants are very tall, open and erect with thick and strong stem and RI) 2 colour uniformly distributed. Leaflets are rough and present in leaflets midrib of 2.3 top leaves but not in the stem base. Tubers are oblong, tapering towards and, flesh dull white eyes and medium deep to fleet. It shows slow rate of degeneration. Tubers develop crack if allowed to remain till full maturity. It is rapid bulking variety keeping quality not good.  It matures 75 days in plains and 140 days in hills. The yield potential is 300 q/ha in plains and 100 a/ha in hills. This variety is having moderate field resistance to late blight with immunity to race 1 and ‘0’ susceptible to common scab.
KUFRI ANAND
A derivative of PJ376 x PH/F 1430, released from CPRI, Shimla in 1999. plants are tall erect, vigorous, stems few, thick and pigmented at the base. Foliage is grey-green, leaves intermediate and rachis green. Leaflets are ovate lanceolate, smooth, glossy surface with entire margin and occasionally terminal leaflets fused. Flowers are light purple in colour with moderate flowering. Anthers are orange yellow, well-developed and low pollen stain ability. Stigma is round and notched. Tubers are white, large oval long, flattened, smooth skin, fleet eyes, white flesh having red purple sprouts. It is a medium maturing variety (100-110 days) having a yield potential of 350-400 q/ha. This variety is adaptable to plains of Uttar Pradesh and neighboring states. This variety is resistant blight. The tubers are ideal in shape for French fries.
KUFRI ASHOKA
It is a wider adaptable variety released from CPIU, Shimla in 1996. It is a derivative of (EM/C-l 020 x Allerfi’uii lleste Gelbe). Plants are medium tall, erect, medium compact and vigorous. Stems are few, medium thick, lightly pigmented at base with poorly developed straight wings. Foliage is green. Leaves are intermediate having green rachis. Leaflets are ovate lanceolate, smooth glassy surface with entire margin, Flowers are light red purple. This variety has profuse flowering. Anthers are orange-yellow, well- developed and medium pollen stain ability. Stigma is round shaped. Tubers are white, large, oval long, smooth skin and fleet eyes with white flesh having purple sprouts. It is an early maturing (70-80 days) having yield potential of 400 q/ha, suited in Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal for cultivation. It is susceptible to late blight and not suitable for processing.
KUFRI BADSHAH
It is a cross of Kufri Jyoti and Kutri Alankar and released in 1980 by Central Sub Committee on release in varieties for Indo – gangetic plains of North India, including Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh and Plateau region. Plants are tall, haulms erect, 4-5 stems per plant with a tendency for branching, semi-solid, flexible, slightly pubescent, red purple, well developed straight wings and short (about 7-8 cm) internodes. Leaves are green, medium long, prominent venation, rachis pigmented at base, disposition almost at right angles with the stem. Leaflets are broad, medium in size, slightly hairy, entire margin, ovate, glassy veins prominent, and petiole green, usually four pairs and one terminal leaflet. Tubers are mostly large to medium, oval,  shining white, smooth, regular with shallow eyes, flesh dull white, sprouts stout, thick, 1 bulbous white with light red pigmentation at the base. Stolen are thick, short and white. Flowers are scanty, white, and medium in size, fully stretching wings, pollen fertility 50-60 per cent and frequently set berries in the hills. This variety possesses medium dormancy. This variety has average keeping quality. It shows slow rate of degeneration. Tubers are tasty with good flavour. It contains 13.6 g/100 g starch and 18.6 per cent dry matter content. It matures in plains 90-100 days. It is tolerant to frost, resistant to late blight, early blight and potato virus ‘X’ but susceptible to soft.
KUFRI BAHAR
It is a derivative of the cross Kufri Red x Ginek and released by :! Central Sub-Committee on Release of Varieties in 1980 for the plains of Haryana, Punjab and Western Uttar Pradesh. Plants are tall erect, medium compact and vigorous. Stem is thick, 4-5 stems per plant, succulent, semi-solid with moderately developed wings. Leaves are open, straight with 4-5 pairs of leaflets. Leaflets are grey green, medium, dull with entire margins. Foliage is of grey green colour. Tubers are large, white, round to oval, skin smooth with medium deep eyes, flesh white. Sprouts are bulbous and red. Stolens are medium long. This variety has moderate flowering, having white flowers, medium in size and sterile. Keeping quality is average with medium dormancy. It is mid maturity variety (90-100 days). Yield is 250-300 q/ha. Resistant to late blight, early blight and potato virus ‘X’, ‘Y’ and leaf roll. It is susceptible to insect pests, drought and frost.
KUFRI CHAMATKAR
A derivative of the cross Ekishiraju x Phulwa and released in 1967 by Central Variety Released Committee for the plains 01 Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, where one crop of long duration is raised. Plants are medium, spreading, short stolen, compact, dark green foliage, foliage prominent, very small internodes, more stems and small leaflets. Flowers are of white colour. Tubers are round and white, eyes medium deep, flesh ye1low and red sprouts. Degeneration is slow and quick tuberization. It is late maturing variety, which matures 110-120 days in plains and 150 days in hills. The yield potential of this variety is 250 q/ha in plains and 75.00 q/ha in hills. It is resistant to early blight but susceptible to viruses, late blight, brown rot, charcoal rot, wilts and common scab.
KUFRI CHANDRAMUKHI

It is a derivative of the cross S.4485 X Kufri Kuber and released in 1967 in Central Variety Release Committee for the plains of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar, West Bengal and Maharashtra. It also grows well in Himachal Pradesh hills and Jammu regions. Plants are medium tall with open foliage habit and free from secondary growth. Foliage is grass green and glossy. The small leaflets are not fully expanded especially on top, notched tip on one side of leaflets. Tubers are oval, white, flesh dull white, eye fleet, and sprouts light red and pubescent. The variety has slow rate of degeneration and early bulking. It possesses good keeping quality. It is mid season variety, matures 80-90 days in plains and 120 days in hills. An average yield is 200 q/ha in plains and 75 q/ha in hills. It is susceptible to common scab, late blight, brown rot, nematodes, charcoal rot and wilts.
KUFRI CHIPSONA-l
It is a cross of MEX.750826 x MS/78- 79 and released from CPRI, Shimla in 1998. Plants are medium tall, semi erect, compact and vigorous. Stems are few, thick, slightly pigmented with poorly developed straight wings. Foliage is green, leaves, open and rachis green. Leaflet is ovate, smooth, dull surface with entire margin. Flowers are white and profuse flowering. Anthers are orange-yellow, well developed, and stigma round pinhead. Tubers are white medium to large oval, smooth skin, fleet eyes, and dull white flesh having green sprouts. It is medium maturing variety (90-110 days) having 400q/ha. It is suitable for cultivation in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. It is resistant to late blight. The variety is highly suitable for making chips and French fries.
KUFRI CHIPSONA-2
It is a derivative of F-6 x QB/B-92-4 and released from CPRI, Shimla in 1998. Plants are medium tall, erect open and vigorous. Stem is few, medium thick slightly pigmented with straight wings. Foliage is dark green, leaves open, rachis green, leaflet ovate lanceolate, wrinkled dull surface with slightly wavy margin. Flowers are white and moderate in flowering. Anthers are yellow, well-developed and moderate pollen stability. Stigma is round notched. Tubers are white, medium, round oval, smooth skin, fleet eyes, and yellow flesh having reddish brown sprouts. It is medium maturing variety yielded 350 q/ha. This variety is resistant to late blight and tolerant to frost. Due to high dry matter content, low reducing sugars and low phenols, the variety is highly suitable for making chips and French Fries.
KUFRI DEWA
It is a derivative of the cross Craig’s Defiance x Phulwa and released by Central Sub-Committee on Release of Varieties in-1973 for Tarai area of Uttranchal and Shimla agro climatic conditions. It is also suitable for Bihar and Orissa. Plants are very tall open, erect and very small internodes. Leaves are semi-compact, dark green and upright. Petioles are very long having 3-6 cm towards base and devoid of leaves. Tubers are erratic round with purple splashes, eye deep and pigmented and sprout light red with white flesh. Tubers develop brown spots after harvest. It is highly susceptible to late blight, possesses good resistance to frost and drought. It matures in 120 days in plains and 165 days in hills. An average yield is 250 q/ha.
KUFRI GIRIRAJ
It is north and south India adaptable variety. It is a cross of SLB/1-132 x EX/A 680-16 and released from CPRI, Shimla in 1998. Plants are medium tall, semi-erect, medium compact and vigorous. Stems are many, medium thick, coloured at base with moderately developed straight wings. Foliage is green, leaves open and rachis green. Leaflets are ovate, smooth dull surface with entire margin. Flowers are light purple and shy flowering. Anthers are yellow, well-developed and low pollen stability. Stigma is round. Tubers are white, medium to large, oval smooth skin, fleet eyes, and white flesh and sprout light purple. The yield potential of this variety is 250 q/ha. This variety is resistant to late blight (both foliage and tubers). It is not suitable for processing.
KUFRI HIMALINI
It is a derivative of cross SLB/H-140 x SLB/Z-389 (b) Recommended by 9th workshop of the All India Coordinated Potato Improvement Project for Hilly regions (hills of Northern India and Nilgiris in South) in the country. Plants are tall, vigorous, erect, semi-close, spreading tendency at the time of maturity. It possesses 4- 5 stems, stem solid, slightly hairy, colour red purple, spreading uniformly throughout the stem, wings moderately developed and straight. Leaves are semi-close, medium to long, placement medium and rachis of green colour. Leaflets are grey green, flat, margin entire, petiole and mid rib green, medium in size and green and foliage grey green. Tubers are medium to large, oval, slightly flattened, skin white, eyes shallow to medium deep, flesh dull white and mealy texture. Sprouts are red purple and medium thick. Flowers are profuse, persistent white, light pinkish colour on the tips of corolla wings, pollens fertile and natural berries are formed. Tubers possess medium dormancy (2-2Y2 months). Keeping quality is good and does not show shrinkage on five months storage in hills. It is highly resistant to late blight but susceptible to early blight, phoma leaf spot, brown rot, and common scab and moderately susceptible to powdery scab and leaf blotch. Planting is done in March-April as summer crop in Nilgiris in northern hills, August- September for autumn crop in the southern hills. It matures 30-140 days after planting.
KUFRI JAWAHAR
It is a derivative of Kufri Neelamani x Kufri jyoti and released from Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla in 1996. Plants are short, erect, compact and vigorous; stem few, thick, lightly pigmented at base with well-developed straight wings. Foliage is light green, leaves open, rachis green, terminal leaflet cordate, smooth dull surface with entire margin. Flowers are white moderately flowering. Anthers are orange yellow, well-developed and low pollen stability. Stigma is round and slightly notched. Tubers are creamy white, medium sized, round-oval smooth skin, eyes fleet, and pale yellow fleshes having purple sprouts. It is an early maturing variety (80-90 days) yielded 400 q/ha. This variety is resistant to late blight. It is not suitable for processing. It is widely adaptable in Haryana and Punjab, plateau region of Gujarat, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh. It is suitable for intensive cropping.
KUFRI JEEVAN
It is a derivative of the cross M-I09-3 x D 698 and adopted for northwest hills of Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Tubers are medium, white skin, oval shaped, eyes fleet, faint red picked, flesh waxy and pale yellow. It matures 150-160 days in hills and 120 days in plains. It is resistant to wart, highly resistant to late blight and in moderately resistant to early blight.
KUFRI JYOTI
It is a derivative of the cross 3069d(4) x 2814 Q (1) and released in 1968 by the Central Variety Release Committee for Himachal Pradesh and Kumaon Hills of Uttranchal and also plains where late blight is a limiting factor. Plants are tall, compact and erect. Terminal leaflet is a cottony or cordate and leaflet of top 2-3 leaves incurred at the base. Leaflets are broad and light green. Tubers are oval, white, eye fleet. Flesh is light white and waxy. Sprouts are blue purple and medium thick. It has good keeping quality if given proper post harvest treatment. It is field resistant to late blight with immunity to race. It is resistant to early blight and wart disease. It matures 100 days in plains and 120 days in hills. The yield potential is 200 and 150 q/ha in plains and hills, respectively.
KUFRI KHASHIGARO
It is popular variety of hilly region and a derivative of the cross Taborky x SD 698 D.lt is adapted to hilly regions of Assam. Tubers are medium, attractive white, round with deep eyes and waxy, pale yellow flesh and rapid bulking. It possesses short dormancy. It gave 160 q/ha tubers in 120 days crop duration.
KUFRI LALIMA
It is a fast bulking variety and a derivative of the cross Kufri Red x CP 1362, which released in 1982 by Central Sub-Committee on Release of Varieties for the plains of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa and Karnataka States. Plants are tall, vigorous, erect, compact and dark green. Stems are 4-5, stem red pigmented and prominent at internodes. Leaves are open, wide; rachis has red, pigmentation running on the central side. Leaflets are smooth, glossy and ovate. Foliage is dark-green. Tuber is uniformly red, medium to large, round, regular, smooth with fleet to medium deep eyes. Flesh is white colour with mealy texture. Sprouts are medium thick with red colour. Mowers are numerous, persistent and blue purple coloured. Pollens are fertile, natural berry forms freely. It is susceptible to late blight wart, powdery, scab, leaf blotch, phoma leaf spot, brown rot, charcoal rot and common scab. It is susceptible to Virus ‘Y’. It possesses slow rate of degeneration and medium dormancy (about 2Yz months).
KUFRI LAUVKAR
It is a derivative of cross Serkoy x Adina released in 1973 by Central sub-committee on Release of Varieties for Decan Peninsula (Maharashtra). Plants are tall, erect and thick stems, large ovate lanceolate and incurring leaflets. Foliage is dark grey green and glossy, foliage many, large and mostly borne on rachis. Tuber is round, white, and flesh white, sprouts beet root red colour, cooking and peeling easy. Cooked flesh is white and good in taste. It has slow rate of degeneration. It is susceptible to late blight, leaf blotch; potato virus’ Y’ and leaf roll.111is variety escapes att.lck to tuber moth. It is susceptible to early blight. It is an early variety, which yielded 250 q/ha tubers in 75-95 days crop duration.
KUFRI MUTHU
It is a derivative of the cross 3046(1) x M-l09-C and released in 1971 by Central Sub Committee on release of Varieties for Nilgiri Hills for summer and autumn seasons. Plants are tall and vigorous: Leaves are dark green and short stolens. Tubers are large, white, roundish, oval, smooth eyes medium deep and flesh white. Sprouts are of blue purple colour. The yield potential of this variety is 135 q/hain100 days of crop duration. It is resistant to late blight but susceptible to early blight.
KUFRI NAVEEN
It is a derivative of the cross 0-692 x, 3070d (4) and adapted to northeast hills of Assam and high altitude of Himachal Pradesh. Tubers are medium, white and oval with fleet eyes. Flesh IS waxy and pale yellow. It IS susceptible to early blight and to resistant to wart. It possesses high degree of field resistant/immunity to race 0, 1 and 4 of late blight.
KUFRI PUKHRAJ
It is a wider adaptable variety and a cross of Craig’s Defiance x JEX/B-687, which released in 1998 from CPRI, Shimla. Plants are tall, semi-erect, medium compact and vigorous. Stems are few, medium thick, green with moderately developed straight wings. Foliage is dark grey green. Leaves are closed with large sized foliage, rachis green. Leaflets are ovate to lanceolate, smooth glossy surface with entire margin. Flowers are white and moderate in flowering, anthers orange yellow, well-developed, high pollen stability and round stigma. Tubers are white, large, oval, slightly tapered, smooth skin, fleet eyes, and yellow flesh having blue purple sprouts. It is an early maturing variety (70- 90 days). The yield potential is 400 q/ha. It is resistant to early blight and moderately resistant to late blight. This variety is suitable in Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. It is not suitable for processing.
KUFRI SHEETMAN

It is a derivative of the cross Craig Defiance x Phulwa,  released in 1968 by Central Variety Release Committee for plains, especially frost affected areas of Punjab, Rajasthan, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh. Plants are tall open erect and vigorous, stem thick, firm and erect. Leaflets are rough dull green with waxy margins. Tubers are oval and white with fleet eyes. It is resistant to frost and drought. It is susceptible to late blight and leaf roll.
KUFRI SHERPA
It is a derivative of the cross Ultimus x Adina and recommended for cultivation in the hills to West Bengal State by 9th Workshop of All India Coordinated Potato Improvement Project. Plants are tall, vigorous, erect, and semi-compact with spreading pasture under wet conditions. Stems are few, highly branched, semi-solid and slightly hairy. Leaflets are rough, hairy, oval, prominent venation, yellow green, petioles short; light green and medium in size. Foliage are small in size and usually 4- 7 pairs. Foliage is light green. Tubers are medium in size, round flattened, skin smooth, medium thick, white, eyes medium deep and flesh of pale yellow colour. Sprouts are conical, blue purple and medium thick, white, eyes medium deep and flesh of pale yellow colour. Flowers are scanty, persistent, and pink in colour, regular in shape with pollen fertility of 50-60 per cent. Tuber dormancy, is medium (2-2 ½ ) months with good keeping quality. It matures 135 and 100 days in hill and plains, respectively and yield is 225-250q/ha. It is susceptible to frost, brown rot and leaf roll and resistant to late blight (both in foliage and tubers) and phoma leaf spot but moderately resistant to early blight and highly immune to wart.
KUFRI SINDHURI
It is derivative of the cross Kufri Kundan x Kufri Red and released by Central Variety Release Committee in 1966 for plains of Punjab, Jammu, Orissa, Bihar, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal. Plants are tall, erect, stems thick having pigment in most part of stem. Leaf rachis is pigmented and leaves open and stiff. Leaflets are dull, basal lobe unequal, petiole slightly pigmented but not midrib. Tubers are round, light red, with medium deep eyes. Flesh is dull white. Tubers are moderate in number, skin firm, not prone to brushing, bigger tubers having tendency to develop hollow heart. Keeping quality is good. It is late variety and matures in 120 days in plains and 165 days in hills. In plains, it yields 300 q/ha. It is slightly resistance to frost. It is Tuber Crops susceptible to late blight, common scab charcoal rot and wilts, moderately resistant to early blight and possesses field resistance to viral disease.
KUFRI SUTLEJ
It is a derivative of Kufri Bahar x Kufri Alankar and released in 1996 from CPRI, Shimla. Plants are medium compact and vigorous. Stem are few, thick, lightly pigmented at base with moderately developed wavy wings. Foliage is grey green. Leaves are ovate-lanceolate and rachis slightly pigmented. Leaflet is ovate, smooth dull sur1ace with entire margin. Flowers are white moderates in flowering. Anthers are orange yellow, well-developed and high pollen stability. Stigma is round and slightly notched. Tubers are white, large, oval, smooth skin, fleet eyes, and white flesh and sprouts light red. It is medium maturing (90-100 days) variety yielded 400 q/ha. This variety is moderately resistant to late blight. It is recommended for cultivation in Bihar, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. This variety has good consumer quality because of easy to cook, waxy texture, and mild flavour and free 1rom discolouration after cooking. It possesses medium dry matter. It is not suitable for processing.

KUFRI SWARNA
It is a cross of Kufri Jyoti x (VIn) 2 (62.33.3) and released in tile year of 1985 from CPRI, Shimla. Plants are tall, erect, compact and vigorous. Stem is few thick with prominent wings. Foliage is dark green, leaves open, rachis green leaflets ovate, moderately pubescent, entire margin and many follicles. Flowers are white, profuse flowering, anthers orange yellow, well-developed, low pollen stability and stigma round. Tubers are white, medium, round oval, smooth skin, fleet eyes, and white flesh having blue purple sprouts. This variety is widely adaptable for south India hills. It matures 130-135 days in summer, while 100-110 days in autumn. This variety is highly resistant to both the species of cyst (Globodera rostochinensis and G. pallida) and resistant to early and late blight. This variety is not suitable for processing.
Climatic Requirements
Potato is basically cool season crop. It grows well from sea level to snow line, where sufficient moisture and fertile soil are available. It is grown in winter in plains of India. However, in northern hills, it is grown as summer season crop. Potato is a long day plant but cultivated as~ day plant. It requires favourable environmental conditions such as low temperature and short day conditions at the time of tuberization for rapid bulking rate. About 20°C temperature is good for tuber formation and it reduces as the temperature increases. Tuberization is badly affected at about 300C temperature. At higher temperature, the respiration rate increases and the carbohydrates produced by photosynthesis are consumed rather than stored in tuber. High temperatures at any part of growing period affect the size of leaflets, thereby reducing the tuber formation. It grows best under long day conditions sunshine along with cooler nights are essential for reducing the spread of diseases.
Soil Conditions
Potato can be produced on a wide range of soils, ranging from sandy loam, silt loam, loam and clay soil. Soil for potato should be friable, well aerated, fairly deep and well supplied with organic matter. Well- drained sandy loam and medium loam soils are most suitable for potato cultivation. Soil structure and texture has a marked effect on the quality of the tuber. Light soil is preferred, because they tend to promote more uniform soil temperatures and make harvesting of the crop easier. Alkaline or saline soil is not suitable for potato cultivation. They are well suited to acidic soils (pH 5.0 to 6.5) as acidic conditions tend to limit scab diseases.
Planting Time
In Plains
Early Crop: Third week of September to first week of October.
Main crop: First week of October to third week of October.
Late Crop: Third week of October to first week of November
II. In Hills: Potato is planted in hills from the third week of February to second week of April. In the southern hills near Ootacamund  in Nilgiris, planting is done three times in a year, i.e. in the month of February, April and September In the plateau regions of Maharashtra, Bihar Madhya Pradesh, potato is raised in rainy and winter seasons.. In the Mysore plateau, the summer and winter crop is planted in April-June and in October-December, respectively.
Seed Rate, Methods of Sowing and Spacing
The seed requirements for a hectare on the basis of seed size are given below:
Large size- 25-30 q/ha; Medium size- 15-20 q/ha; Small size- 10-15 q/ha; Out tubers- 8-12 q/h2:-‘ Potato is planted mainly by two methods:
1. Ridge and Furrow Method: In this method, the ridges are prepared. The length of the ridges depends on slope of the plot. Too long ridges and furrows arc not supplied with irrigation water conveniently. The potato tubers are planted on is let into furrows.
2. Flat Bed Method: In this method, the whole plot is divided into beds of convenient length and width. The shallow furrows are opened and potato tubers are planted at recommended distance. The tubers are covered with the original soil of furrows. When the germination is completed and plants become 10 to 12 cm height, earthing should be done. Suitable plant spacing in relation to potato seed grades are given below:

Nutritional Requirements and Their Management
Soils poor in organic matter content should be supplied with 250 – 500 q/ha of farmyard manure or compost during land preparation, preferably a fortnight before planting. Potato plant is a heavy feeder. When it is grown in medium type of soils, it needs 100 to 150 kg nitrogen, 80 to 100 kg phosphorous and 80 to 100 kg potassium per hectare. Two – third to three fourth quantity of nitrogen along with whole quantity of phosphorus and potassium is applied at the time of planting. Remaining one fourth to one third nitrogen is applied 30 to 35 days after planting i.e. at the time of first earthing up or when plants become 25 to 30 cm in height either in the form of top dressing or as a foliar feeding. Spraying of essential micronutrients such as boron, zinc, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum etc. is done when crop is showing deficiency symptoms.
Intercultural Operations
In potato crop, both types of weeds are found i.e. broad-leaved weeds as well as narrow leaved weeds-The use of weedicides in potato crop in general is not essential because earthing up operation destroy almost all weeds, if some how, weed plants are growing on ridges, they may be pulled out by hands. Pre- emergence application of nitrogen @ 1.0 kg a.i./ha or alachlor @.2.0 kg a.i./ha or post emergence application of propanil @ 1.0 kg a.i./ha may be used ill solution fom1 (800-1000 litre/ha). Care should be taken while spraying of post- emergence herbicides that they should not come in the contact to potato plants. Proper development of tubers depends upon aeration, moisture availability and proper soil temperature. Therefore, proper earthing up is necessary. Earthing should be done when the plants are 15 to 22 cm ill height. Generally earthing is done at the time of top dressing of nitrogenous fertilizers. The ridges should be high enough to cover up tubers. If necessary, a second earthing may be done after two -week of the first one. A mould board plough or a ridger may be used for earthing up in large area.
Use of Plant Growth Regulators
Soaking of potato seed tuber in CCC at 500 mg/l (Schedule and Pandita, 1986), sodium ascorbate at  100 mg/l (Murthy et al.. 1975) cytozyme at 5 per cent (Pandita and Hooda, 1979), Singh and Kaur, 1981) or foliar sprays with ethephon at 400 mg/l (Murthy and Banerjee, 1978, Pandita and Hooda, 1979 a, Sekhon and Singh, 1985), CCC at 25 mg/l or garlic acid at 10-100 mg/l(Kumar and Agarwal, 1978) increased tuber yield. Sidda Reddy (1988) also obtained higher tuber yield with foliar sprays of mixtallol at 1 or 2 mg/l.
Water Management
Before coming to the planting operation. It should be kept in mind that the sufficient soil moisture is available for satisfactory sprouting. If not then light pre-irrigation or just after planting may be given. The rate of water use is low till 30-35 days after planting; it means that the first irrigation is essentially done within 30-35 days after planting. However, when soil moisture seems insufficient for sprouting, intervals of first irrigation should be reduced. Further, irrigation is done as and when crop needs. As regards method of irrigation in potato, the furrow method is commonly followed.
Harvesting, Yield and Storage
Harvested potatoes are heaped under shade for a couple of days, so that their skin becomes hard and soil adhering with them is also separated out. Under good crop management, 350-450 quintals of marketable potatoes of good quality can be produced from one hectare land. The sorting operation is the most important, in that all cut tubers, bruised, injured by insects-pest and disease are removed. Sorted healthy tubers are graded in to different grades based on diameter of the tubers reduce the prices in the market. Therefore, such tubers should be sorted and marked separately. Over sized tubers are great in demand for chips making. Very small sized tubers are also not remaining unsold. These tubers are purchased by poor people for making vegetable by partially Cushing them before cooking. However, both the over sized and under sized are quite unsuitable for seed purposes. Potatoes can be stored in the cold storage at the temperatures of 4 to 7oC and relative humidity.
Diseases and Pests
Diseases
Non-Viral Diseases
Early Blight (Alternaria solani)
The infection appears on lower .leaves with necrotic spots having concentric rings. The fungus survives in the soil. In diseased plant debris. The collateral host is tomato. High moisture and low temperature are favourable for disease.
Control Measures

1. Follow crop rotation
2. Collect and bum plant debris after harvesting
3. Start sprays the crop Dithane M-45 at 0.2 per cent 30 to 35 days after planting and repeat I0 to 15 days interval
4. Grow early blight tolerant varieties such as Kufri Naveen, Kufri Sjndhuri and Kufri Jeevan.

Late Blight (Phytophthora infestans)
The infection appears at the tips or edges of the lower leaves with circular or irregular water soaked spots. White downy fungus growth appears on the underside of the leaves around the spots. Cloudy weather is conducive for very fast spread of the disease. In case of sever incidence all above ground parts may show rotting. Later the disease may spread to tubers and initiate rotting.
Control Measures

1. Plant only healthy disease free certified seed tubers.
2. Spray the crop thoroughly with diathane M-45 (2.0 kg/ha) or diathane Z- 78 (2.5 kg/ha) or difolatan (2.5 kg/ha) well in advance to general appearance of disease. The spraying operations should remain continue at narrow interval of 5 to 6 days during cloudy weather. (iii) Dig out tubers when foliage is completely dry or cleaned. (iv) Grow late blight resistance varieties like Kufri Navaharl. (v) Avoid applying in excess nitrogen and irrigation.

Black Scurf (Rhizoctonia solani)
The infected plants killed, stem canker may also be formed. Affected plants may form aerial tubers. On tubers, black sclerotial bodies are formed. It is a soil as well as tuber borne disease.
Control Measures

1. Always sow certified seeds
2. Treat the seed tubers with any organo mercurial fungicides containing 6 per cent mercury {agallol, aretan, emisan etc.) for about 5 to 10 minutes before the planting and also seed tubers before keeping in the cold storage. (iii) Dip the tubers in 1.75 per cent solution of sulfuric acid for 20 minutes. (iv) Apply Brassicol at 30 kg per hectare in the soil at the time of sowing. (v) Apply sawdust at 25 q/ha with recommended doses of nitrogen at least 15 days before sowing.

Common Scab of Potato (Streptomyces scabies)
It survives in soil years together and on infected tubers in cold storage. It may also spread through manure. Affected tubers show the superficial roughened areas of corky tissue, often slightly below the plane of healthy skin of tubers. Low soil moisture is favourable for proliferation of causal pathogen.
Control Measures

1. Obtain healthy, disease free seed tubers for planting.
2. Disinfect the tubers by dipping in suspension of mercurial fungicide e.g. emisan-6 or agallol- 6 at 0.25 per cent concentration for 5 minutes, (iii) Plant the tubers shallow. (IV) Keep the soil wet during tuberization. (v) Follow crop rotation with non-host crops including beets, carrot etc. (VI) Maintain soil pH 5.0 to 5.3.

Black Leg or Soft Rot (Erwinia spp.)
It is caused by different species of bacteria. The base of shoots develops a blackened shriveled cortex and its growth is stunted. Leaflets become reddish in colour at the tips, branches become stiffened and more upright than normal. The affected haulms are jet black in colour at the soil level. The tubers become watery and upon rotting give off offensive sulphurous odour.
Control Measures:

1. Obtain healthy seed tubers for planting.
2. Avoid planting of cut seed potato.
3. Avoid planting too early and too late in the season.
4. Collect and destroy affected plants as and when seen in the field.
5. Avoid injury to tubers during harvesting, transit and storage.
6. Wash the tubers with chlorinated water before storage.
7.  Keep the stores well ventilated, dry and cool.

Bacterial Brown Rot or Wilt Disease (Pseudomonas solanacearum)
Affected plants show dwarfing and bronze discolouration of the leaflets. When affected stem or tubers cut across, the browning of the xylem vessel is seen, and upon squeezing, the whitish bacterial ooze may come out.
Control Measures

1. Obtain healthy, disease free seed tubers for planting.
2. Collect and destroy infected plants.
3. Avoid flowing rain or irrigation water from diseased field to healthy one.
4. Disinfect cutting knife with a suitable bactericide solution, whenever diseased tubers are cut.
5. Follow crop rotation with non-host crops such as maize, soybean and red top grass for at least three years in the field,
6. Reduce the application of organic manure (it promotes activity of bacteria) but apply high doses of inorganic fertilizers (decrease the activity).
7. Treat the seed tubers in 0.02 per cent sueptocycine for 30 minutes after giving five mm deep cut.

Charcoal Rot (Macrophmina phaseoli)
The roots of the affected plants become brown in colour. The rotting starts on the stem portion. The skin of the stern becomes ash coloured.lne dark lesions appear at the lenticels of the tubers and also round the stern end of tuber. Charcoal rot is common during the hot and dry months in late season crops.
Control Measures

1. Obtain disease free seed tubers for planting. Hill potatoes are nearly free from this pathogen.
2. Grow early maturing varieties such as Kufri Alankar or Kufri Chandramukhi.
3. Irrigate crop at regular intervals.
4. Seed tubers may be treated with ageUal-6 or aretan at 0.25 per cent solution before

storage. The treated tubers should not be eaten.
Wart Disease of Potato (Synchytrium endobioticum)

It is a caused by the fungus. Affected plants show warty out growth protuberances on sterns, stolons and tubers. The roots are not affected. The wart consists of distorted,

proliferated-branched structures grown together into a mass of hyper parasitic tissue. It is difficult to control once it has been established in a field.
Control Measures

1. Avoid growing potatoes in known wart-affected soil.
2. Obtain disease free seed tubers for planting. (iii) Soil treatment with 5 per cent formalin is effective but very costly. (iv)Grow wart tolerance varieties like Kufri Sherpa, Kufri Jyoti, Kufri Jeevan and Kufri Muthu.

Viral Diseases
Leaf Roll
A virus known as potato leaf roll virus, potato virus 1, solanum virus 14 or Corium solani Holmes causes it. Transmission of virus in nature occurs through infected tubers and through insect, an aphid (Myzus persicae). Affected plants become dwarf, more upright thin normal, the leaves are rolled, especially the lower one. They are thick and leathery.
Mosaic Disease
Potato crop is affected by mainly three types of mosaic.