GINGER
Ginger: Zingiber officinale Rosc Family: Zingiberaceae

Ginger is a herbaceous perennial, the rhizomes of which are used as a spice. India is a leading producer of ginger in the world and during 2006-07 the country produced 3.70 lakh tonnes of the spice from an area of 1.06 lakh hectares. Ginger is cultivated in most of the states in India. However, states namely Kerala, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Sikkim, Nagaland and Orissa together contribute 70 per cent to the country’s total production.
Botany
It is a herbaceous perennial with underground rhizomes having serial leafy shoots of 0.5 to 0.75 m height, sheathy, linear with 15 cm. Flowers borne on a spike, condensed, oblong and cylindrical with numerous scar bracts, yellow with dark purplish spots, bisexual, epigynous, stamens only one, ovary inferior, three carpellary, fruit is an oblong capsule, seeds glabrous and fairly large.
Climate and soil
Ginger grows well in warm and humid climate and is cultivated from sea level to an altitude of 1500 m above sea level. Ginger can be grown both under rain fed and irrigated conditions. For successful cultivation of the crop, a moderate rainfall at sowing time till the rhizomes sprout, fairly heavy and well distributed showers during the growing period and dry weather for about a month before harvesting are necessary. Ginger thrives best in well drained soils like sandy loam, clay loam, red loam or lateritic loam. A friable loam rich in humus is ideal. However, being an exhausting crop it is not desirable to grow ginger in the same soil year after year.
Varieties
Several cultivars of ginger are grown in different ginger growing areas in India and they are generally named after the localities where they are grown. Some of the prominent indigenous cultivars are Maran, Kuruppampadi, Ernad, Wayanad, Himachal and Nadia. Exotic cultivars such as Rio-de-Janeiro have also become very popular among cultivators. High altitude research station, Pottangi, Orissa has released three improved varieties Suprabha, Suruchi and Surari.
Season
The best time for planting ginger in the West Coast of India is during the first fortnight of May with the receipt of pre monsoon showers. Under irrigated conditions, it can be planted well in advance during the middle of February or early March. Burning the surface soil and early planting with the receipt of summer showers results in higher yield and reduces disease incidence.

 Land Preparation
The land is to be ploughed 4 to 5 times or dug thoroughly with receipt of early summer showers to bring the soil to fine tilth. Beds of about 1 m width, 15 cm height and of convenient length are prepared with an inter-space of 50 cm in between beds. In the case of irrigated crop, ridges are formed 40 cm apart. In areas prone to rhizome rot disease and nematode infestations, solarization of beds for 40 days using transparent polythene sheets is recommended.
Planting
Ginger is propagated by portions of rhizomes known as seed rhizomes. Carefully preserved seed rhizomes are cut into small pieces of 2.5-5.0 cm length weighing 20-25 g each having one or two good buds. The seed rate varies from region to region and with the method of cultivation adopted.
In Kerala, the seed rate varies from 1500 to 1800 kg/ha. At higher altitudes the seed rate may vary from 2000 to 2500 kg/ha. The seed rhizomes are treated with Mancozeb 0.3% (3 g/L of water) for 30 minutes, shade dried for 3-4 hours and planted at a spacing of 20-25 cm along the rows and 20-25 cm between the rows. The seed rhizome bits are placed in shallow pits prepared with a hand hoe and covered with well rotten farm yard manure and a thin layer of soil and levelled.
Manuring
At the time of planting, well decomposed cattle manure or compost @ 25-30 tonnes/ha has to be applied either by broadcasting over the beds prior to planting or applied in the pits at the time of planting. Application of neem cake @ 2 tonnes/ha at the time of planting helps in reducing the incidence of rhizome rot disease/ nematode and increasing the yield.
The recommended dose of fertilizer for ginger is 75 kg N, 50 kg P2O5 and 50 kg K2O per ha. The fertilizers are to be applied in split doses (Table 3). The beds are to be earthed up, after each top dressing with the fertilizers. In zinc deficient soils basal application of zinc fertilizer up to 6 kg zinc/ha (30 kg of zinc sulphate/ha) gives good yield.
Fertilizer schedule for ginger (per ha)

Ginger Mulching

Mulching the beds with green leaves/organic wastes is essential to prevent soil splashing and erosion of soil due to heavy rain. It also adds organic matter to the soil, checks weed emergence and conserves moisture during the latter part of the cropping season. The first mulching is done at the time of planting with green leaves @ 10-12 tonnes/ha. Mulching is to be repeated @ 7.5 tonnes/ha at 45 and 90 days after planting, immediately after weeding, application of fertilizers and earthing up.
Intercultivation
Weeding is done just before fertilizer application and mulching; 2-3 weedings are required depending on the intensity of weed growth. Proper drainage channels are to be provided when there is stagnation of water.
Earthing up is essential to prevent exposure of rhizomes and provide sufficient soil volume for free development of rhizomes. It is done at 45 and 90 days after planting immediately after weeding and application of fertilizers.
Crop rotation and mixed cropping
Crop rotation is generally followed in ginger. The crops most commonly rotated with ginger are tapioca, ragi, paddy, gingelly, maize and vegetables. In Karnataka, ginger is also mix cropped with ragi, red gram and castor. Ginger is also grown as an intercrop in coconut, arecanut, coffee and orange plantations in Kerala and Karnataka. However, crop rotation using tomato, potato, chillies, brinjal and peanut should be avoided, as these plants are hosts for the wilt causing organism, Ralstonia solanacearum.
Plant protection Diseases
Soft rot
Soft rot is the most destructive disease of ginger which results in total loss of affected clumps. The disease is soil borne and is caused by Pythium aphanidermatum. P. vexans and P. myriotylum are also reported to be associated with the disease. The fungus multiplies with build up of soil moisture with the onset of south west monsoon. Younger sprouts are the most susceptible to the pathogen. The infection starts at the collar region of the pseudo stem and progresses upwards as well as downwards. The collar region of the affected pseudo stem becomes water soaked and the rotting spreads to the rhizome resulting in soft rot. At a later stage root infection is also noticed. Foliar symptoms appear as light yellowing of the tips of lower leaves which gradually spreads to the leaf blades. In early stages of the disease, the middle portion of the leaves remain green while the margins become yellow. The yellowing spreads to all leaves of the plant from the lower region upwards and is followed by drooping, withering and drying of pseudo stems.
Treatment of seed rhizomes with Mancozeb 0.3% for 30 minutes before storage and once again before planting reduces the incidence of the disease. Cultural practices such as selection of well drained soils for planting is important for managing the disease, since stagnation of water predisposes the plant to infection. Seed rhizomes are to be selected from disease free gardens, as the disease is also seed borne. Application of Trichoderma harzianum along with Neem cake @ 1 kg/bed helps in preventing the disease. Once the disease is located in the field, removal of affected clumps and drenching the affected and surrounding beds with mancozeb 0.3% checks the spread of the disease.
Bacterial wilt
Bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum Biovar-3 is also a soil and seed borne disease that occurs during south west monsoon. Water soaked spots appear at the collar region of the pseudo stem and progresses upwards and downwards. The first conspicuous symptom is mild drooping and curling of leaf margins of the lower leaves which spread upwards. Yellowing starts from the lowermost leaves and gradually progresses to the upper leaves. In the advanced stage, the plants exhibit severe yellowing and wilting symptoms. The vascular tissues of the affected pseudo stems show dark streaks. The affected pseudo stem and rhizome when pressed gently extrudes milky ooze from the vascular strands. Ultimately rhizomes rot.
The cultural practices adopted for managing soft rot are also to be adopted for bacterial wilt. Seed rhizomes must be taken from disease free fields for planting. The seed rhizomes may be treated with Streptocycline 200 ppm for 30 minutes and shade dried before planting. Once the disease is noticed in the field all beds should be drenched with Bordeaux mixture 1% or copper oxychloride 0.2%.
Leaf spot
Leaf spot is caused by Phyllosticta zingiberi and the disease is noticed on the leaves from July to October. The disease starts as water soaked spot and later turns as a white spot surrounded by dark brown margins and yellow halo. The lesions enlarge and adjacent lesions coalesce to form necrotic areas. The disease spreads through rain splashes during intermittent showers. The incidence of the disease is severe in ginger grown under exposed conditions. The disease can be controlled by regular spraying of Bordeaux mixture 1% or mancozeb 0.2%.
Nematode pests
Root knot (Meloidogyne spp.), burrowing (Radopholus similis) and lesion (Pratylenchus spp.) nematodes are important nematode pests of ginger. Stunting, chlorosis, poor tillering and necrosis of leaves are the common aerial symptoms. Characteristic root galls and lesions that lead to rotting are generally seen in roots. The infested rhizomes have brown, water soaked areas in the outer tissues. Nematode infestation aggravates rhizome rot disease. The nematodes can be controlled by treating infested rhizomes with hot water (50°C) for 10 minutes, using nematode free seed rhizomes and solarizing ginger beds for 40 days. In areas were root knot nematode population is high, the resistant variety IISR-Mahima may be cultivated. Pochonia chlamydosporia, a nematode biocontrol agent can be incorporated in ginger beds (20 g/bed at 106 cfu/g) at the time of sowing.
Insect pests
Shoot borer
The shoot borer (Conogethes punctiferalis) is the most serious pest of ginger. The larvae bore into pseudostems and feed on internal tissues resulting in yellowing and drying of leaves of infested pseudostems. The presence of a bore-hole on the pseudo stem through which frass is extruded and the withered and yellow central shoot is a characteristic symptom of pest infestation. The adult is a medium sized moth with a wingspan of about 20 mm; the wings are orange-yellow with minute black spots. Fully grown larvae are light brown with sparse hairs. The pest population is higher in the field during September-October.
The shoot borer can be managed by spraying Malathion (0.1%) at 21 day intervals during July to October. The spraying is to be initiated when the first symptom of pest attack is seen on the top most leaves on the pseudostem. An integrated strategy involving pruning and destroying freshly infested pseudostems during July-August (at fortnightly intervals) and spraying Malathion (0.1%) during September-October (at monthly intervals) is also effective against the pest.
Rhizome scale
The rhizome scale (Aspidiella hartii) infests rhizomes in the field (at later stages) and in storage. Adult (female) scales are circular (about 1 mm diameter) and light brown to grey and appear as encrustations on the rhizomes. They feed on sap and when the rhizomes are severely infested, they become shriveled and desiccated affecting its germination. The pest can be managed by treating the seed material with Quinalphos (0.075%) (for 20-30 minutes) before storage and also before sowing in case the infestation persists. Severely infested rhizomes are to be discarded before storage.
Minor pests
Larvae of leaf roller (Udaspes folus) cut and fold leaves and feed from within. The adults are medium sized butterflies with brownish black wings with white spots; the larvae are dark green. A spray with carbaryl (0.1%) or dimethoate (0.05%) may be undertaken when the infestation is severe.
Root grubs occasionally feed on tender rhizomes, roots and base of pseudostems causing yellowing and wilting of shoots. The pest can be controlled by drenching the soil with chloropyriphos (0.075%).
Harvesting and curing
The crop is ready for harvest in about 8 months after planting when the leaves turn yellow, and start drying up gradually. The clumps are lifted carefully with a spade or digging fork and the rhizomes are separated from the dried up leaves, roots and adhering soil.
For preparing vegetable ginger, harvesting is done from sixth month onwards. The rhizomes are thoroughly washed in water and sun-dried for a day.
For preparing dry ginger, the produce (harvested after 8 months) is soaked in water for 6-7 hours. The rhizomes are then rubbed well to clean the extraneous matter. After cleaning, the rhizomes are removed from water and the outer skin is removed with bamboo splinters having pointed ends. Deep scraping may be avoided to prevent damage of oil cells which are just below the outer skin. The peeled rhizomes are washed and dried in sun uniformly for 1 week. The dry rhizomes are rubbed together to get rid of the last bit of skin or dirt. The yield of dry ginger is 19.­25% of fresh ginger depending on the variety and location where the crop is grown.
Fresh ginger (with relatively low fibre) harvested at 170-180 days after planting can be used for preparing salted ginger. Tender rhizomes with a portion of the pseudostem may be washed thoroughly and soaked in 30% salt solution containing 1% citric acid. After 14 days it is ready for use and can be stored under refrigeration.
Storage of Seed rhizomes
In order to obtain good germination, the seed rhizomes are to be stored properly in pits under shade. For seed material, bold and healthy rhizomes from disease free plants are selected immediately after harvest. For this purpose, healthy and disease-free clumps are marked in the field when the crop is 6-8 months old and still green. The seed rhizomes are treated with a solution containing quinalphos 0.075% and mancozeb 0.3% for 30 minutes and dried under shade. The seed rhizomes are stored in pits of convenient size in sheds. The walls of the pits may be coated with cow dung paste. The seed rhizomes are placed in pits in layers along with well dried sand/saw dust (put one layer of seed rhizomes, then put 2 cm thick layer of sand/saw dust). Sufficient gap is to be left at the top of the pits for adequate aeration. The pits can be covered with wooden planks with one or two small openings for aeration. The seed rhizomes in the pits may be checked once in about 21 days by removing the plank and shriveled and disease affected rhizome are to be removed. The seed rhizomes can also be stored in pits dug in the ground under shade.

1. Ginger belongs to the family ________________
2. Mention the exotic cultivars of ginger ________________
3. Ginger is propagated by ___________________
4. Essential intercultural operations in ginger ___________
5. Popular exotic cultivars of ginger ________________

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TURMERIC
(Curcuma longa, Zingiberaceae)

Turmeric is the dried rhizome of Curcuma longa, an herbaceous plant, and native to tropical south East Asia. The rhizome has 1.8 to 5.4 percent curcumin, the pigment and 2.5 to 7.2 percent of essential oil. It is used as an important condiment and as a dye with varied application in drug and cosmetic industries. In India, it is grown in an area of 104,500 ha producing annually 3, 28,800 tonnes. Although, India is leading in its production (75% of world output), the average productivity and quality are not satisfactory and these limit our export to about 10 to 15 percent of our production only , annually 18 to 20 crores worth of turmeric are exported. In India, Andhra Pradesh is the leading state followed by Maharastra, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Kerala and Bihar.

Botany

It is a herbaceous perennial with a thick under ground rhizome giving rise to primary and secondary rhizomes called fingers. The leaves are broadly lanceolate with long stalks. The flowers are born on separate peduncle arising directly from the rhizome. There are four important species of curcuma. They are (a) Curcuma longa, the widely cultivated type (b) C.aromatica, the Cochin turmeric or kasturi manjal (c) C. angustifolia, East Indian arrow root having plenty of starch in its rhizome and (d) C. amada, mango ginger, which has the taste and flavour of raw mango.

Plant

Rhizome

Flower

Climatic and soil

Turmeric can be grown in diverse tropical condition from sea level to 1500m in the hills, at a temperature range of 20 to 300C with a rainfall of 1500 to 2250 mm per annum. It is also grown as an irrigated crop. It is grown in different types of soil from lights black, loam and red soils to clay loams, but it thrives best in a well drained sandy rich in humus content.
Varieties
Preparation of land
The land is prepared with the receipt of early monsoon. Soil is brought to a fine giving about four deep ploughings. Weed, stubbles, roots etc. are removed. Immediately after the receipt of pre- monsoon showers, beds of 1 to 1.5m width and 15cm between beds is prepared. Planting is also done by forming ridges and furrows.
Planting
Kerala and others west costal areas, crop can be planted during April – May with the receipt of pre-monsoon showers. In Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, sowing is done during May – June or July – August. Since turmeric is a shade loving plant, castor or Sesbania grandifolia may be raised along the borderlines in the field.
Seed material
Whole or split mother rhizomes weighing 35 to 44g are used for planting. Well developed healthy and disease free rhizomes are to be selected. Rhizomes are treated with 0.3 percent Malathion for 30 minutes before storing. Two system of planting viz. flat beds and ridges and furrows (45cm) methods are adopted in India. Small pits are made hand hoe in ridges with a spacing of 15cm covered with soil or dry powdered cattle manure. The optimum spacing in furrows and ridges is about 45 cm between the rows and 15 cm between the plants. A seed rate of 1500-2000 Kg of rhizomes is required for one hectare.
Manure and manuring
Farm yard manure @ 10t/ha is applied as basal dressing.

Mulching
The crop is to be mulched immediately after planting with green leaves or banana pseudostem or sugarcane trash at the rate of 12 to 15 tonnes per hectare. It may be repeated for second time after 50 days with the same quality of green leaves after weeding and application of fertilizers.
After cultivation and growing as intercrop
Weeding may be done thrice at 60, 120, and 150 days after planting depending upon weed intensity. It can be grown as be raised as mixed crops with chillies, colocasia, onion, brinjal and cereals like maize, ragi, etc. In some places, double inter cropping viz., Fenugreek + Onion in turmeric field 15 to 20 irrigations in heavy soils and 35 to 40 in light soil. Moisture stress affects the growth and development of the rhizome bulking stage.
Plant protection
Diseases
Leaf blotch
Leaf blotch is caused by Taphrina maculans and appears as small, oval, rectangular or irregular brown spots on either side of the leaves which soon become dirty yellow or dark brown. The leaves also turn yellow. In severe cases the plants present a scorched appearance and the rhizome yield is reduced. The disease can be controlled by spraying mancozeb 0.2 per cent.

Leaf spot
Leaf spot is caused by Colletotrichum capsici and appears as brown spots of various sizes on the upper surface of the young leaves. The spots are irregular in shape and white or grey in the centre. Later, two or more spots may coalesce and form an irregular patch covering almost the whole leaf. The affected leaves eventually dry up. The rhizomes do not develop well. The disease can be controlled by spraying zineb 0.3 per cent or Bordeaux mixture 1per cent.
Rhizome rot
The disease is caused by Pythium graminicolum or P. aphanidermatum. The collar region of the pseudo stem becomes soft and water soaked, resulting in collapse of the plant and decay of rhizomes. Treating the seed rhizomes with mancozeb 0.3 per cent for 30 minutes prior to storage and at the time of sowing prevents the disease. When the disease is noticed in the field, the beds should be drenched with mancozeb 0.3 per cent.

Nematode pests
Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) and burrowing nematode (Radopholus similis) are the two important nematodes causing damage to turmeric. Root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) are of common occurrence in Andhra Pradesh. Wherever, nematode problems are common, use only healthy, nematode-free planting material. Increasing the organic content of the soil also checks the multiplication of nematodes. Pochonia chlamydosporia can be applied to the beds at the time of sowing @ 20 grams/bed (at 106cfu/g) for management of nematode problems.
Insect pests
Shoot borer
The shoot borer (Conogethes punctiferalis) is the most serious pest of turmeric. The larvae bore into pseudo stems and feed on internal tissues. The presence of a bore-hole on the pseudo stem through which frass is extruded and the withered central shoot is a characteristic symptom of pest infestation. The adult is a medium sized moth with a wingspan of about 20 mm; the wings are orange-yellow with minute black spots. Fully-grown larvae are light brown with sparse hairs. Spraying Malathion (0.1%) at 21 day intervals during July to October is effective in controlling the pest infestation. The spraying has to be initiated when the first symptom of pest attack is seen on the inner most leaf.
Rhizome scale
The rhizome scale (Aspidiella hartii) infests rhizomes in the field (at later stages of the crop) and in storage. Adult (female) scales are circular (about 1mm diameter) and light brown to grey and appear as encrustations on the rhizomes. They feed on sap and when the rhizomes are severely infested, they become shrivelled and desiccated affecting its germination. Treat seed material with quinalphos (0.075 per cent) (for 20-30 minutes) before storage and also before sowing in case the infestation persists. Discard and do not store severely infested rhizomes.
Minor pests
Adults and larvae of leaf feeding beetles such as Lema spp. feed on leaves especially during the monsoon season and form elongated parallel feeding marks on them. The spraying of Malathion (0.1 per cent) undertaken for the management of shoot borer is sufficient to manage this pest.
The lace wing bug (Stephanitis typicus) infests the foliage causing them to turn pale and dry up. The pest infestation is more common during the post monsoon period especially in drier regions of the country. Spraying dimethoate (0.05 per cent) is effective in managing the pest.
The turmeric thrips (Panchaetothrips indicus) infests the leaves causing them to roll, turn pale and gradually dry up. The pest infestation is more common during the post monsoon period especially in drier regions of the country. Spraying dimethoate (0.05 per cent) is effective for the management of the pest.
Harvesting
Depending upon the variety, the crop becomes ready for harvest in seven to nine month. Usually it extends from January – March. Early varieties mature in 7 to 8 month, medium varieties after 9 month. The land is ploughed and the rhizomes are gathered by hand picking or the clumps are carefully lifted with a spade. Harvested rhizomes are cleaned of mud other extraneous matter adhering to them. The average yield per hectare is 20 to 25 tonnes of green Turmeric.

Preservation of rhizomes
Rhizomes for seed purpose are generally stored after heaping under the shade of a tree in well ventilated shed and covered with turmeric leaves. Sometimes the heap is plastered with earth mixed with cow dung. The seed rhizomes can also be stored in pits with sawdust. The pits can be covered with wooden planks with one or two holes for aeration.

Processing of turmeric

Processing of turmeric involves three steps 1. Curing, 2.Polishing and 3.Colouring
1. Curing
Fingers are separated from mother rhizomes and are usually kept as seed material. The fresh turmeric is cured before marketing. Curing involves boiling of fresh rhizomes in water and drying in the sun.
Traditional method of curing
In the traditional method, the cleaned rhizomes are boiled in copper or galvanized iron or earthern vessels, with water just enough to soak them. In certain places, cow dung slurry is used as boiling medium. From hygienic point of view, such rhizomes fetch poor market value. Boiling is stopped when froth comes out and white fumes appear giving out a typical odour. The boiling lasts for 45 to 60 minutes when the rhizomes are soft. Over cooking spoils the colour of the final product. While under cooking renders the dried product brittle.
Improved scientific method of curing
In this method of curing the cleaned fingers (approximately 50 kg) are taken in a perforated trough of size 0.9×0.55×0.4 m, made of GI or MS sheet with extended parallel handle. The perforated trough containing the fingers is then immersed in the pan. The alkaline solution (0.1% sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate) is poured into the trough so as to immerse the turmeric fingers. The wholesome is boiled till the fingers become soft. The cooked fingers are taken out of the pan by lifting the trough and draining the solution into the pan. Alkalinity of the boiling water helps in imparting orange yellow tinge to the core of turmeric.
The drained solution in the pan can also be used for boiling another lot of turmeric along with the fresh solution prepared for the purpose. The cooking of turmeric is to be done within two or three days after harvesting. The mother rhizomes and the fingers are generally cured separately.
The cooked fingers are dried in the sun by spreading 5 to 7 cm thick layers on bamboo mat or drying floor. A thinner layer is not desirable, as the colour of the dried product may be adversely affected. During night time, the materials should be heaped or covered. It may take 10 to 15 days for the rhizomes to become completely dry. The yield of the dry product varies from 20 to 30 percent depending upon the location where the crop is grown.
2. Polishing
Dried turmeric has poor appearance and a rough dull outer surface with scales and root bits. The appearance is improved by smoothening and polishing outer surface by manual or mechanical rubbing.
Manual polishing: It consists of rubbing the dried turmeric fingers on a hard surface or trampling them under feet, wrapping in gunny bags.
Improved method: The improved method is by using hand operated barrel or drum mounted on a central axis, the sides of which are made of expanded metal mesh. When the drum filled with turmeric is rotated at 30 rpm, polishing is effected by abrasion of the surface against the mesh as well as by mutual rubbing against each other as they roll inside the drum. The turmeric is also polished in power- operated drums. The yield of polished turmeric from the raw materials varies from 15 to 25 percent.
3. Colouring
It is done to give a good appearance and better finish to the product. This is done to half polished rhizomes in two ways, known as dry and wet colouring.
Dry colouring: Turmeric powder is added to the polishing drum in the last 10 minutes in dry process.
Wet colouring: In this process, turmeric powder is suspended in water and mixed by sprinkling inside the polishing basket. For giving a brighter colour the boiled, dried and half polished fingers are taken in baskets which are shaken continuously when an emulsion is poured in. When the fingers are uniformly coated with the emulsion, they may be dried in the sun. The composition of the emulsion required for coating, 100 kg of half boiled turmeric is as follows, Alum 0.04 kg, Sodium bisulphate 30 g, Turmeric powder 2.00 kg, Conc. HCl 30 ml and Castor seed oil 0.14 kg

1. Scientific name for turmeric _________________
2. In turmeric the primary and secondary rhizomes are called __________
3. The important species of curcuma which has the taste and flavour of raw mango.
4. Name the plant which is used as shade plant in the turmeric field
5. Seed material used for propagation in turmeric?

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PEPPER (Piper nigrum, Piperaceae)

1. Main Stem which originate from a seed or from a stem cutting. It climbs on a support with the aid of aerial or adventitious roots.
2. Runner Shoots are produced from the basal portion of the main stem, growing at right angle to the main stem, usually restricted up to 50 cm from the ground
3. Fruiting branches (Plagiotropes) are produced from the nodes of the main stem and they grow laterally more or less at right angles to the main stem, bearing the spikes.
4. Topshoots (Orthotropes): After a period of vertical growth, the top portion of the main shoots attains a bushy appearance with shorter, thicker internodes and profuse branching with large number of adventitious roots at the nodes. This portion of the main shoot is called top shoots or orthotropes.
5. Hanging shoots (Geotropes): In a fully grown vine, some of the plagiotropes at the top portion are seen to give rise to a special type of shoots which hang down and grow geotropically.

• One or more black spots appear on the leaves which have a characteristic fine fibre like projections at the advancing margins which rapidly enlarge and cause defoliation.
• The tender leaves and succulent shoot tips of freshly emerging runner shoots trailing on the soil turn black when infected. The disease spreads to the entire vine, from these infected runner shoots and leaves, during intermittent showers due to rain splash.
• If the main stem at the ground level or the collar is damaged, the entire vine wilts followed by shedding of leaves and spikes with or without black spots. The branches break up at nodes and the entire vine collapses within a month.
• If the damage is confined to the feeder roots, the expression of symptoms is delayed till the cessation of rain and the vine starts showing declining symptoms such as yellowing, wilting, defoliation and drying up of a part of the vine. This may occur during October-November onwards. These vines may recover after the rains and survive for more than two seasons till the root infection culminates in collar rot and death of the vine.

• Removal and destruction of dead vines along with root system from the garden is essential as this reduces the build up of inoculum (fungal population).
• Planting material must be collected from disease free gardens and the nursery preferably raised in fumigated or solarized soil.

• Adequate drainage should be provided to reduce water stagnation.
• Injury to the root system due to cultural practices such as digging should be avoided.
• The freshly emerging runner shoots should not be allowed to trail on the ground. They must either be tied back to the standard or pruned off.
• The branches of support trees must be pruned at the onset of monsoon to avoid build up of humidity and for better penetration of sunlight. Reduced humidity and presence of sunlight reduces the intensity of leaf infection.

• After the receipt of a few monsoon showers (May-June), all the vines are to be drenched at a radius of 45-50 cm with any one of the below four combinations
• 1. Copper oxychloride 0.2 per cent @ 5-10 litres/vine + A foliar spray with Bordeaux mixture one per cent is also to be given
• 2. Potassium phosphonate 0.3 per cent @ 5-10 litres/vine + A foliar spray with 0.3 per cent potassium phosphonate
• 3. Metalaxyl mancozeb 0.125 per cent @ 5-10 litres/vine + A foliar spray with metalaxyl mancozeb 0.125 per cent may also be given.
• 4. Apply Trichoderma around the base of the vine @ 50 grams/vine (this quantity is recommended for a substrate containing Trichoderma @ 1010 cfu) + A foliar spray with potassium phosphonate 0.3 per cent (or) Bordeaux mixture one per cent is also to be given.
• Drenching and spraying are to be repeated once again during August- September. A third round of drenching may be given during October if the monsoon is prolonged.

• Use virus free healthy planting material
• Regular inspection and removal of infected plants; the removed plants may be burnt or buried deep in soil
• Insects such as aphids and mealy bugs on the plant or standards should be controlled with insecticide spray such as dimethoate or monocrotophos @ 0.05 per cent.

• Severely affected vines which are beyond recovery should be removed from the plantation and destroyed.
• The pits for planting should be treated with phorate 10 G @ 15 grams or carbofuran 3 G @ 50 grams at the time of planting.
• Nematode free rooted cuttings raised in fumigated or solarized nursery mixture should be used for planting in the field.
• Phorate 10 G @ 30 grams or carbofuran 3 G @ 100 g/vine should be applied during May/June (with the onset of south west monsoon) and September/October. Along with nematicides the basins should be drenched with either copper oxychloride 0.2per cent or potassium phosphonate 0.3 per cent or metalaxy 0.125 per cent.

************

• Scientific name for pepper ___________
• Mention the chromosome number for pepper ____________
• Important varieties of pepper is ____________
• Alkaloid content present in pepper _____________
• Important disease of pepper _____________

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CARDAMOM
(Elettaria cardamom, Zingiberaceae)

       Cardamom, popularly known as Queen of Spices is native to the evergreen rainy forests of Western Ghats in South India. It is cultivated in about 1, 00,000 ha mainly confined to the Southern States viz; Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu accounting for 60,31 and 9% of the total area respectively. Our annual production is about 40000 metric tonnes and nearly 40% of which is exported to more than 60 countries earning a foreign exchange of nearly 60 million rupees. Cardamom is used for flavouring various preparations of food, confectionary, beverages and liquors.
Botany
Cardamom is an herbaceous perennial having underground rhizomes. The aerial pseudostem is made of leaf sheaths. Inflorescence is a long panicle with racemose clusters arising from the underground stem, but comes up above the soil. Flowers are bisexual, fragrant, fruit is trilocular capsule. Flower initiation takes place in March – April and from initiation to full bloom, it takes nearly 30 days and from bloom to maturity, it takes about 5 to 6 months. Honeybee is the principal pollinating agent and it increases the fruit set considerably when compared to flowers prevented from bee visits. Cardamom flowers remain open for about 16 to 18 hours and stigma receptivity and pollen viability are maximum during morning hours.

Four to five beehives per ha should be maintained and pesticides spraying should be maintained and pesticides spraying should be carefully monitored to avoid any damage to the bees.  Large cardamom or Nepal cardamom or Great Indian cardamom is the dried fruits of Amomum subulatum. It is the native of Eastern Himalayan region and is now cultivated in Sikkim, Darjeeling and Assam hills in about 23000 ha in India with an annual production of 3250 tonnes. About 150 tonnes are annually exported earning around Rs 70 lakh. It is a perennial crop, propagated from the seeds or cut bits of the rhizome. It starts bearing in 3 to 5 years after planting and the economic age of the plantation is 12 to 15 years. The fruits are about2.5 cm long, ovoid and triangular in shape brown or pink in colour when ripe. They contain 40 to 50 seeds. Average yield is 300 to 1000 kg from 4th or 5th year.

Climate and Soil
The natural habitat of cardamom is the evergreen forests of the Western Ghats. It is grown in the areas where the annual rainfall ranges from 1500 to 4000 mm, with a temperature range of 10 to 35 C and an altitude of 600 to 1200 m above MSL. Rainfall distribution should be good and summer showers during February – April are essential for panicle initiation, otherwise it will affect the yield.  With the denudation of the forests in the Western and Eastern Ghats, the favourable ecosystem has been affected destabilizing the macroclimate and rainfall in the cardamom growing tracts, resulting in poor growth and yield.
Varieties
Based on the size of the fruit, two varieties are broadly recognized via; Elaterid cardamom var. major consisting of wild indigenous types and var. minor comprising the cultivated types via; Mysore, Malabar and Vazhukka (natural breed between Mysore and Malabar). These types are identified mainly based on the nature of panicle and shape and size of fruits as follows.

Recently a number of improved cultivars have been released for cultivation.
New cardamom varieties

Propagation and nursery
Cardamom is propagated mainly through seeds and also through suckers each consisting of atleast one old and a young aerial shoot.
1. Clonal Propagation: The suckers are commonly used for gap filling but suckers may not be available in larger numbers. Therefore, a rapid Clonal multiplication technique evolved by Indian Institute of Spice Research, Cardamom Research Centre, Appangala, is proved to be quick, reliable and economic for production of large number of quality planting materials. The site selected for this method should have a gentle slope and have a water source nearby it. Trenches of 45cm width, 45 cm depth and of any convenient length may be taken across the slope or along the contour at 1.8 m apart. The top 20 cm depth soil is excavated separately and heaped on the upper side of the trench. The lower 25 cm is excavated and heaped on the lower side of the trenches all along the line. The top soil is mixed with equal portions of top soil is mixed with equal proportions of humus rich jungle soil, sand and cattle manure and filled back by leaving a depression of 5 cm at the top to facilitate mulching for retention of soil mixture. Suckers, each consisting of one grown up tiller and a growing young shoot, are placed at a distance of 0.6 m distance in the trenches during March-October. Regular cultural operations are to be followed including high fertilizer dosed 100:50:200 kg NPK/ha in 6 split doses at 60 days interval along with Neem cake at 250 g/plant. Irrigation should be provided atleast twice in a week. Overhead pandal at a height of 3.6 m covered with coir mat or leafy twigs of any shade tree may be provided during the non-rainy season. Within a period of 12 months, a plant would produce atleast 32 to 42 suckers, which may yield atleast 16 to 21 planting units per ha of clonal nursery within 12 months of planting
2. Seed propagation: Seedlings are normally raised in primary and secondary nurseries. The nursery site should be selected on gentle sloppy lands, having an easy access to a water source. Raised beds are prepared after digging the lands to a depth of 30- 45 cm. The beds of 1 m width and convenient length raised to a height of about 30 cm are prepared. A fine layer of humus rich forest soil is spread over the beds. Seeds should be collected from well ripe capsules. Immediately after the harvesting, the husk is removed and the seeds are washed repeatedly in water for removing the mucilaginous coating. After draining the water, the seeds are to be mixed with wood ash and dried in shade for a day. In order to ensure uniform and early germination, seeds should be sown immediately after extraction. If the sowing is delayed, pre-sowing treatment of seeds with 25% Nitric acids for 10 minutes is advisable to get a quick and higher germination. One kg of seed capsule may produce 5000 seedlings (600g seeds).

Sowing may be taken up during November- January and is done in rows. Deep sowing of seeds has to be avoided for quick and better germination. Seedbeds are to be dusted with Lindane.  Beds are mulched to a thickness of 2 cm with paddy straw or any locally available material and are watered regularly. The germination commences in about a 30 bags and may continue for a month or two. After germination, the mulch is to be removed. An overhead pandal with a height of 2 m is quite desirable. Materials like coir mat, plaited leaves or tree twigs which do not shed their leaves may be used but the coir mat is preferable as it provides uniform filtered sunlight. The excess seedlings are to be thinned out after 75-80 days sowing. The thinned out seedlings can be used for gap filling within the nursery bed or for raising secondary nursery. When the seedlings attain 5-6 leaf stages, light earthing up is to be done. This would encourage better tillering and proper growth of seedlings.
Generally in Kerala and Tamil Nadu, the seedlings are transplanted to the secondary nursery when they attain four to six leaf stages. The beds are prepared in the same manner as that of a primary nursery. The seedlings are transplanted in March- May at a spacing of 20×20 cm and mulched immediately. The beds are covered with an overhead pandal and are watered regularly. Recently, instead of raising secondary nursery beds, the seedlings are also raised in poly bags containing rich forest soil. Manuring at the rate of 90g N, 60g P2O5 and 120g K2O per bed of 5×1 size , in three equal split doses at an interval of 45 days is recommended to produce healthier seedlings. The first dose of fertilizer may be applied 30 days after transplanting in the secondary nursery. In Karnataka, ten month old seedlings are used for planting in the main yield, while in Kerala and Tamil Nadu, 18 months old seedlings are commonly used.
Preparation of land
All under growth should be cleared and excess shade trees or branches should be thinned out to have an even overhead canopy. Pits of 45x45x30 cm size are dug in April – May and filled with a mixture of top soil and compost are well-decomposed farm yard manure. In sloppy land, contour terraces may be made and pits may be taken along the contour and a close planting (2mx2m) is advisable along the contour. The spacing adopted in Karnataka for the Malabar type is 2×2 m o between plants and rows. In Kerala region 2-3 m on either side is adopted. Staggered trenches may be taken across the slope to conserve run off rainwater. The soil collected in trenches may be utilized for earthing up during the post  monsoon period.
Planting
       The planting is carried out during the rainy season commencing from June. Under Eastern Ghats hills July planting is adopted. Seedlings are to be adopted. Seedlings are to be planted up to the collar region for better growth. Cloudy days with light drizzle are ideal for planting. In some parts of tea estates in South India, redgum (Eucalyptus sp) is planted in flat valley bottom at a regular spacing. Cardamom under planted in this redgum areas produce better growth as equal to natural jungle areas. Recently, mixed cropping of cardamom in Arecanut, rubber and coffee plantations is gaining an impetus especially with small growers which assure greater significance in the light of frequent dry spells and fluctuating price structure.
Mulching
It is an important cultural practice in cardamom. Fallen leaves of the shade trees are utilized for mulching. Sufficient mulch should be applied during November – December to reduce the ill effects of drought, which prevails for nearly 4 to 5 months during summer. Exposing the panicle above the mulch is beneficial for the pollination by bees.
Weeding
Depending upon the intensity on weeds, 2-3 weedings are necessary in a year. The first round of weeding is to be carried in May – June, the second in August – September and the third in December – January. In sloppy land slashing of weeds is alone to be carried out otherwise it encourages to more soil erosion. Weedicides like paraquat @ 625 ml in 500 liters of water may be sprayed in the interspaces between rows leaving 60 cm around the plant base.
Trashing
Trashing consists of removing old and drying shoots of the plant once in a year with the onset of monsoon under rainfed conditions and 2-3 times in high density plantations provided with irrigation facilities.
Shade regulation
Cardamom being a pseophyte is very sensitive to moisture stress. Shade helps to regulate soil moisture as well as temperature and provides congenial microclimate for cardamom. Excess shade is also detrimental and shade has to be regulated so as to provide 50-60% filtered sunlight. Cardamom plants can tolerate less shade in areas where well distributed and adequate rainfall is received. In South India many trees are available in the natural habitat to provide shade but an ideal shade tree should have a wide canopy, minimum side branching and it should not shed the leaves during the flowering phase of cardamom so as not to affect pollination. Some of the common shade trees in cardamom estates are Palangi (Atrocarpus fraxinifolius), Jack, Red cedar (Cedrella tuna), Karimaram (Diospyros ebenum) and Elangi (Mimusops elangi). The temporary shade trees like Erythina lithosperma and E. indica are the most unsuitable as they compete for nutrients and soil moisture.
In order to provide adequate light during monsoon, shade regulation may be taken up before the onset of monsoon. A two tier canopy with a height of not more than 3 m below the lower and higher canopy may be maintained. Areas exposed to western side should have adequate shade.
Earthing up
After the monsoon is over, a thin layer of fresh fertile soil, rich in organic matter may be earthed up at the base of the clump, covering up to the collar region by scrapping between the rows or collecting soil from staggered trenches/check pits. This encourages new growth.
Irrigation
In order to overcome the dry spell during summer, it is necessary to irrigate the crop to get maximum production as it helps in initiation of panicles, flowering and fruit set. Depending on the moisture holding capacity of soil and topography of the soil and topography of the estates, they may be irrigated at an interval of 10 to 15 days till the onset of monsoon. Sprinkler irrigation and or drip irrigation at the rate of 4 litres per clump per day during dry month’s increases the yield.
Harvesting and Processing
       Cardamom plants normally start bearing two years after planting. In most of the areas the peak period of harvest is during October- November. Picking is carried out at an interval of 15-25 days. Ripe capsules are harvested in order to get maximum green colour during curing.

Ripe capsules

Dried capsules

After harvest, capsules are dried either in fuel kiln or in electrical drier or in the sun. It has been found that soaking the freshly harvested green cardamom capsules in 2%washing soda for 10 minutes prior to drying helps to retain the green colour during drying. When drier is used, it should be dried at 45 to 500C for 14 to 18 hours, while for kiln, over night drying at 50 to 600C is required. The capsule kept for drying are spread thinly and stirred frequently to ensure uniform drying. The dried capsules are rubbed with hands or coir mat or wire mesh and winnowed to remove any foreign matter. They are then sorted out according to size and colour, and stored in black polythene bag to retain the green colour during storage. These bags are then kept in wooden chambers.
Plant protection
Important pests and diseases affecting cardamom are given below with their typical damages/symptoms and control measures.

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1. Queen of spices is ____________
2. Native of cardamom is _______________
3. Inflorescence of cardamom is known as ______________
4. Cultivated types of cardamom are _____________
5. Cardamom is propagated mainly through _____________

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CORIANDER
(Coriandrum sativum, Apiaceae)
Coriander is an annual herb, mainly cultivated for its fruits as well as for the tender green leaves. It is native of the Mediterranean region and is now commercially grown in India, Morocco, U.S.S.R, Hungary, Poland, Rumania, Czechoslovakia, Guatemala, Mexico and the U.S.A. In India, it is grown in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. It is grown in about 3.51 lakhs hectares with an annual production 1, 67,700 tonnes of grains. Major portion is though consumed locally; a small quantity is being exported now. But our country has ambitious plan to increase the report of coriander to a tune of 9000 tonnes by 2000 A.D.
The fruits have a fragrant odour and pleasant aromatic taste. The odour and taste are due to the essential oil content which varies from 0.1 to 1.0 percent in the dry seeds. These essential oils are used for flavouring liquors, cocoa preparations in confectionary and also to mask the offensive odours in pharmaceutical preparations. The dried ground fruits are the major ingredient of the curry powder. The whole fruits are also used to flavour foods like pickles, sauces and confectionary. The young plants as well as the leaves are used in the preparation of chutney and are also used as seasoning in curries, soups, sauces and chutneys. It has medicinal properties too. Fruits are said to have carminative, diuretic, tonic, stomachic and aphrodisiac properties.
Botany
       Coriander belongs to the family Apiaceae. It is a smooth, erect annual herb 30-70 cm high lower leaves broad with crenately lobed margins, upper leaves finely cut with lineary lobes, flowers small, white or pink in compound terminal umbels, fruits- schizocarp, globular, yellow-brown, ribbed 2 seeds, and ripe seeds are aromatic.

Leaf

Flower

Seed

Climate and soil
             It is a tropical crop and can be grown throughout the year for leaf purposes, but for higher than grain yield it has to be grown in specific season. A dry and cold weather free from frost, especially during flowering and fruit setting stage favours good grain production. Cloudy weather during flowering and fruiting stage favours pest and disease incidences. Heavy rain affects the crop. As an irrigated crop, it can be cultivated on almost all types of soils provided sufficient organic matter is applied. Black cotton soils with high retentivity of moisture are best under rainfed conditions.  
Varieties

Field preparation                                                                                                
For raising crop, the land is ploughed 3 to 4 times following rains and field must be planted immediately to break the clods and to avoid soil moisture. For irrigated crop the land is ploughed twice or thrice and beds and channels are formed. 
Season of cultivation
In the North and Central parts of India and Andhra Pradesh, It is mostly grown as a rabi season crop and hence sowing is done between middle of October and middle of November. Still late sowing is recommended in places vulnerable for frost damage. In certain pockets of the above area, late kharif crop is sometimes sown in August-September. In Tamil Nadu, as an irrigated crop, coriander is raised in June-July and Sep-Oct. In the first season, it matures early before the end of Aug-Sep. In the second season, it matures late with an extended growth phase during Jan-Feb. The growth and the yield of second season crop is found to be better than the first season crop. Under rainfed conditions, it is sown during Sep-Oct, at the onset of North east monsoon and harvested during Jan-Feb.
Sowing
        A seed rate of 10 to 15 kg per hectare is required. Seeds are stored for 15-30 days record better and early germination than freshly harvested seeds. Seeds are soaked in water for 12 to 24 hours before sowing also enhances and treated with thiram at 2g per kg of seeds. For irrigated crop, sowing is generally done in rows spaced at 30-40 cm apart with 15 cm between hills. Soil depth should not exceed 3.0 cm. Three to five seeds are sown a hill and later on thinned to two plants per hill. Under rainfed condition seeds are broadcast and covered with country plough. Germination takes place in 10-15 days.
Manuring
       About 10 tonnes of farm yard manure is applied at the time of last preparation. In addition, the following fertilizers may be applied. Irrigated crop 15:40:20Kg/ha NPK as basal and 15 kg N at 30DAS, Rainfed crop 20:30:20 kg NPK/ha
Irrigation
First irrigation is given 3 days after sowing and thereafter at 10 – 15 days interval depending upon the soil moisture available in the soil.
After cultivation
The first hoeing and weeding are given in about 30 days. Thinning the plants is also attended simultaneously, leaving only 2 plants per hill. Depending upon the growth 1 or 2 more weedings are done.
Harvesting
The crop will be ready for harvest in about 90 -110 days depending upon the varieties and growing seasons. In certain varieties, harvesting 50% leaves at 60 days 75 days may be done which will fetch additional income but without affecting the grain yield. Harvesting has to be done when the fruits are fully ripe and start changing from green to brown colour. Delaying of the harvest should be avoided lest shattering during harvest and splitting of the fruits in subsequent processing operations. The plants are cut or pulled and piled in to small stacks in the field wither for 2- 3 days the fruits are then threshed out from the plants by beating with sticks or rubbing with the hands. The produce is winnowed, cleaned and dried in partial shade. After drying, the produce is stored in gunny bags lined with paper.  The rainfed crop yields on an average 400 – 500 kg/ha and the irrigated crop 600 -1200 kg/ha.

Imature umbel

At maturity

Matured seed

Plant protection
At the seedling stage coriander is often attacked by the leaf eating caterpillars and semi-loopers and at the flowering stage by the aphids. Spraying the crop with methyl demeton (0.05 %) is recommended to control aphids but at flowering stage the use of any insecticide would kill the bee population affecting pollination in the crop.
Powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni) is a serious disease which ruin the crop if allowed unchecked in the initial stage itself. Spraying wettable sulphur 0.25 % or 0.2 % solution of karathane twice at 10-15 days interval is recommended. Grain mold is caused by Helminthosporium sp, Alternaria sp, Carvularia sp and Fusarium sp. It can be controlled by spraying carbendazim 0.1 % 20 days after grain set.

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1. Coriander belongs to the family ____________
2. Coriander is originated from __________
3. Important varieties of coriander are _____________
4. Fruits are botanically named as _____________
5. Maturity indices for coriander is _______________

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CUMIN
(Cuminum cyminum, Apiaceae)

 Cumin, commonly known as Jeera, (Cuminum cyminum) belongs to Apiaceae family, widely cultivated in Gujarat, Rajasthan and in some parts of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh as Rabi crop. Cumin is mainly used in flavouring foods. It is also used in Ayurvedic medicines.
Climate and soil
Cumin is a tropical plant. It grows well in sub-tropical climate too. High humidity during flowering & fruit set, causes fungal diseases in this crop. Cumin can be cultivated in all types of soils but well drained sandy loam and medium soils are suitable for the crop.
Varieties
Improved varieties like S-404, MC-43, Gujarat Cumin-1(GC-1), GC-2, GC-3, RS-1, UC-198, RZ-19, etc., evolved by Agricultural Universities of Gujarat and Rajasthan having higher yield potential are useful for cultivation. The maturity days are 110 to 115 days depending on variety.
Botany
It is an herbaceous annual plant, with a slender branched stem 20–30 cm tall. The leaves are 5–10 cm long, pinnate or bipinnate, thread-like leaflets. The flowers are small, white or pink, and borne in umbels. The fruit is a lateral fusiform or ovoid achene 4–5 mm long, containing a single seed. Cumin seeds are similar to fennel and anise seeds in appearance, but are smaller and darker in color.

Sowing and Seed rate
Sowing is done from 1st week of November to 1st week of December by broadcasting or in rows drilled at 30 cm. Seed rate vary from 12 to 15 kg / ha, depending upon method of sowing & type of soil. Sowing of seeds should be done at a depth of 1 – 2 cm after treatment with Ceresan or thiram or Difoltan @ 3.0 g per kg. Soaking of seeds for 8 hours before sowing is helpful in getting good germination. Soaked seeds should be dried in shade to facilitate broadcasting. Sowing at higher depths, affect the germination of seeds adversely. Crop rotation should be followed to avoid incidence of pest and diseases.
Land preparation
Soil is brought to fine tilth by 2-3 ploughings with harrow or deshi plough. Stubbles of previous crops should be collected and removed from the field. Clods should be broken and field should be leveled with the help of plank. Beds of 4 m x 3 m size with provision of irrigation channels should be prepared before sowing of seeds to facilitate proper irrigation and intercultural operations.
Manures & Fertilizers
15 – 20 MT FYM, 30 kg Nitrogen & 15 kg Phosphorus per ha is recommended for cumin crop. Whole quantity of FYM should be mixed into the soil at the time of land preparation and 15 kg Nitrogen & whole quantity of Phosphorus should be applied as basal dose. Another, 15 kg Nitrogen should be applied as topdressing one month after germination of seeds.
Weeding
The crop should be kept free from weeds for proper growth and development of plants. Generally 2-3 hand weeding are required to keep the weeds under check. In drilled crop light intercultural operation is beneficial. 1st weeding and hoeing should be done after 30-40 days from the date of sowing.
Irrigation
Based on type of soil, crop requires 4-6 irrigation. 1st light irrigation should be given immediately after sowing and second irrigation should be given after 6-10 days from 1st irrigation. Subsequent irrigations should be given after 30, 45, 65 and 80 days from 1st irrigation. Irrigation at the time of flowering and fruit set are essential. At maturity stage irrigation should be stopped.
Plant Protection
Aphid
            Aphid is a major pest of cumin crop, it sucks the sap of tender parts and reduces the yield. Spraying of 0.03% solution of Dimethoate or 0.025% solution of Methyl demeton or 0.04% solution of Monocrotophos is recommended to control the aphid.
Leaf eating Caterpillar
This pest causes damage to the foliage of plants reducing yield of the crop. It can be controlled by spraying of 0.02% solution of Phosphomidon in the early stage of crop.
b) Diseases
Fusarium wilt
            Infected plants show peculiar symptoms of dropping of tips and leaves, leading to mortality of the entire plant. Attack of wilt is severe in younger plants. There is no chemical control for this disease. Crop rotation and use of Neem cake are helpful in checking spread of the fungus vis-à-vis disease. Seeds collected from disease free plots should only be used for sowing.
Alternaria Blight
             The blight affected plants show very minute brownish necrotic spots, which later turn to blackish. Mostly diseased plants fail to produce seeds. If seeds are produced they remain shriveled, light in weight and dark in colour. For the control of this disease seed treatment and spraying of 0.2% solution of Dithane-M-45 4 times at 10 days interval commencing from 40 days after sowing is recommended. Add 1 ml soap solution / liter water for better efficiency of fungicide. The crop should be kept free from weeds. Crops requiring more irrigation and mustard crop should not be grown in vicinity of this crop.
Powdery mildew
Affected plants in early stages show minute whitish spots on leaves, petiole, stem pedicel and seeds. In severe condition, it looks as the plants have been dusted with white powder. At later stages of attack seeds become white and shriveled and light in weight. Crop should be dusted with 300 mesh Sulphur dust @ 25 kg/ha to control this disease as soon as the symptoms are noticed. Spraying of wettable Sulphur or Dinocap (Karathane or Thiowet) can also be used to control the disease @ 20-25 g per 10 liter of water at the initial stage of this disease. If needed second spray should be given 15-20 day after first spray.
Harvesting
Generally cumin crop takes about 110-115 days to reach maturity. Crop becomes ready to harvest, when plants turn yellowish brown. Harvesting should be done early in the morning by cutting/uprooting the whole plants. Harvested crop should be dried in the threshing yard thrashed to separate the seeds. Seeds should be cleaned by winnowing.
Yield:  600 to 700 kg/h

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1. Cumin is widely cultivated in ____________ and ________________
2. Improved varieties of cumin is ____________
3. Mention the seed rate for cumin _________________
4. Yield of cumin ranges from ___________
5. Important disease in cumin _______________

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FENUGREEK
Trigonella foenum-graecum, Fabaceae

Fenugreek, a  native  of  south Eastern Europe  and  west Asia, is  cultivated  as a  leafy  vegetable, condiment and  as  medicinal  plant. The  fresh tender leaves and  stem are  consumed as  curried  vegetable and  the  seeds  are  mainly  used  as spice for  flavoring  almost  all  dishes. It has a high medicinal value as it prevents constipation, removes indigestion, stimulates spleen and liver and is appetizing and diuretic.
It India, it is grown in about 0.30 lakhs ha producing annually about 30000 tonnes of seeds. Out  of  this 1000 to 3000 tonnes  are  exported to Saudi Arabia, Japan, srilanka, korea  and  U.K., thus earning  a  foreign exchange  worth  of Rs.170 lakhs  annually. The major states growing fenugreek in India is Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Maharastra and Punjab.

Botany

It  is an annual herb  reaching a height of  about 0.9 m, leaves are  light green pinnately trifoliate,  flowers-papilionaceous, fruits- legume, long, narrow, curved, tapering with  a  slender  point and  containing  small  deeply furrowed  seeds. There  are  two  species of the  genus Trigonella  which are  of  economic important viz., T. foenum  graecum, the common methi and  T.corniculata, the kasuri methi. These two differ in their growth habit and yield.  The latter one is a slow  growing  type  and  remains  in  rosette  condition  during  most  of its vegetative  growth  period.

Leaf

Flower

fruit

Seed

Climate and soil
It has wide adaptability and is successfully cultivated both in the tropics as well as temperature regions. It is tolerant to frost and freezing weather. It does well in places receiving moderate or low rainfall areas but not in heavy rainfall areas. It can be grown on a wide variety of soil but clayey loam is relatively better. The optimum soil pH should be 6-7 for its better growth and development.
Varieties

Land preparation and sowing
Land is prepared by ploughing thrice and beds of uniform size are prepared. Broad casting the seed in the bed and raking the surface to cover the seeds is normally followed. But, line sowing is advocated in rows at 20-25 cm apart which facilitates the inter cultural operations. Sowing in the plains is generally taken up in Sep-Nov while in the hills, it is grown from March. Approximately 20 kg of seed is required for one hectare and the seed takes about 6-8 days to complete its germination.
Manures and fertilizer
Besides 15 tonnes of  farm yard manures, a fertilizer  dose of 30 Kg N,    25Kg P2 O5   and  40Kg  K2O per  ha  is  recommended as basal.  20 kg N at 30 days after sowing. To obtain more successful leafy growth, nitrogen should be applied after each cutting.
Irrigation
First irrigation is given immediately after sowing and subsequent irrigation is applied at 7 to 10 days interval.
Intercultivation
Hoeing and weeding during the early stages of plant growth are required to encourage proper growth. Thinning may be done on 20-25 days to keep the distance between the plants at 10-15 cm and to retain 1-2 plants per hill. In about 25-30 days, young shoots are nipped off 4’’ above ground level and subsequent cuttings of leaves may be taken after 15 days. It is advisable to take 1-2 cuttings before the crop is allowed for flowering and fruiting. When the pods are dried, the plants are pulled out and dried in the sun and seeds are threshed by beating with stick or by rubbing with hands. Seeds are winnowed, cleaned and dried in the sun. They may be stored in gunny bags lined with paper.
Yield
500-700 kg of seeds and about 4000-5000 kg of leaves may be obtained per hectare in crops grown for both the purposes.
Plant protection
Root rot is a serious disease and can be controlled by drenching carbendazim 0.05% first at the onset of the disease and another one month.

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1. Native of fenugreek is _____________
2. Fenugreek belongs to the family _____________
3. Two economic important species of fenugreek are _______ and ___________
4. Improved cultivars of fenugreek are __________
5. Serious disease of fenugreek is _____________

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LEMONGRASS (Cymbopogon flexuosus, Poaceae)  Lemongrass commonly known as “East Indian Lemongrass” is a perennial and multicut aromatic grass. The prefix ‘lemon’ owes to its typical lemon like odour, which is mainly due to the presence of citral, a cyclic monoterpene. Lemongrass is the source of Lemongrass oil, a good source of natural citral, which is used s a basic raw material for synthesis of β-ionone used for synthesis of a number of useful aromatic compounds and Vitamin- A. Lemongrass oil is thus used as a main substitute for ‘Cod liver oil’. Citral itself is used in perfumery for various grades of soaps detergents, cosmetics and flavour agent for soft drinks. Consumption of Lemongrass in Ayurvedic preparation like Balm is also increasing. The present domestic requirement is about 150 MT/year and about 70 MT is exported every year. The total world production is estimated to 1300 MT/year. The crop provides maximum herb yield from second and third year after planting and thereafter declines. The leaves yield essential oil on steam distillation containing 70-90% citral.

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1. Lemongrass is commonly known as ____________
2. Lemongrass oil is used as a main substitute for ___________
3. Lemongrass oil is a good source of natural _____________
4. Lemongrass is propagated by _______________
5. Lemongrass oil is extracted by ___________________ method.

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CITRONELLA (Cymbopogon winterianus, Poaceae) Citronella oil is an essential oil containing citronellal, geraniol and hydroxy citronellol and other high value perfumery bases obtained on steam distillation of citronella grass. In Assam production of citronella oil has gone down from 450-500 MT/year in 1986 to less than 100 MT/year mainly due to the following reasons:

1. Shift to tea cultivation when tea price was remunerative
2. No technological up gradation neither in varietal development nor in oil extraction techniques.
3. No quality monitoring as a result of large-scale adulteration gave negative impact to the NE region’s products.
4. Globalization in trading resulting tough competition with China that produces quality products at lower cost.
5. No extension support and marketing networking.
6. Optimization of synthetic equivalent derivatives from petrochemicals and turpentine that could partly replace the derivatives ex-citronella oil.

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1. Botanical name of citronella is ____________
2. Citronella is propagated by splitting the ___________
3. What are the major components of citronella oil ___________
4. Mention two types of citronella species?
5. Percentage of oil recovery in citronella?

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PALMAROSA GRASS (Cymbopogon martinii var.motia., Graminae) Oil of palmarosa, also known as Rusa or Rusha or Rosha is the essential iii obtained from the aromatic grass Cymbopogon martinii var.motia. The oil obtained from the other form viz. C. martini.var. sofia is known as the ginger grass oil. Motia and sofia grasses are almost identical and difficult to distinguish when they are in earlier growth stages. Motia grass has fine yellow stem with dark green leaves and they attain a height of 1.80 – 2.40 m. On the other hand, sofia grass has purple stem, shorter (90-120 cm) than the motia grass. These oils are used as base for the fine perfumery and are valued because of their geraniol content. The oil is useful in imparting rose – like aroma to a wide variety of soaps, tobacco products etc. The oil of palmarosa is commercially preferred to ginger oil.

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1. Botanical name of palmarosa grass is ______________
2. Percentage of oil recovery in palmarosa ___________
3. Method of oil extraction in palmarosa grass?
4. What is the seed rate of palmarosa grass
5. Jam Rosa (RRL – 82) is a hybrid between _____________

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VETIVER (KHUS)
(Vetiveria zizanioides, Poaceae)

            Vetiver oil is obtained by steam distillation of roots of vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides). The oil is one of the finest oriental perfumes with a persistent fragrance. The oil is used in the manufacture of soaps, cosmetics, perfumery, agarbathis, soft drinks; pan masala etc. In blended perfumes, oil of vetiver acts as excellent fixatives for volatile compounds. It is known for its cooling properties. It grows well in wastelands-sandy, marginal land where conventional cropping is uneconomic. Vetiver is extremely hardy and can tolerate submergence for a considerable period as well as withstand drought situation. Cultivation of vetiver for 3-4 cycles improves sandy soils to a greater extent and makes them suitable for growing common agricultural crops more profitably.

Demand and Supply of vetiver oil
In India as well as the World Market, the demand for vetiver oil is increasing day by day due to its unique odour, for which it is used in both flavour and fragrance industries. One more reason for increase in demand is that this oil cannot be substituted with reconstituted oil and cannot be made synthetically. It is used for Base-note in flavour and fragrance and the percent usage varies from 20-50% to 60-70 %. That means it has enough market potential and there is no doubt on its consumption. The internal demand particularly of Northern type oil always falls short of supply. The world production of vetiver oil is around 300 tons per annum of which India contributes about 20-25 tons. Haiti, Indonesia (only Java), and Reunion produce most of the world’s vetiver oil. In India it is cultivated in the states of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh, with an annual production of about 20 tons of oil. Its demand for perfumes, essence, attar, soap and also as food flavour etc is greater than indigenous production. Quantity wise the Indian vetiver oil, especially North Indian origin is considered to be the best in the world market. The Indian consumption at present is about 100 tons and more than 80 % is met by import.
The vetiver oil from North Indian origin is considered to be the best in the world market.
Improved varieties
KS-1 (Bharatpur type) an improved selection released by CIMAP is recommended for commercial cultivation in Assam. Other improved varieties are Gulabi, Dharaini and Kesar.
Soil and Climate
Vetiver grows in any type of soil but a rich and fairly well drained loam is considered best. The loamy soils, which are loose in texture, are ideal for root growth and harvesting as well. Vetiver plant also grows on a variety of problematic soils like waterlogged soils, sandy soils and areas with high water table and flood prone. A luxuriant growth of healthier root is obtained from plants growing under warm and damp conditions on rich, temporary inundated, marshy land. The Charlands of The Brahmaputra and its main tributaries and newly silted land that turned otherwise unfit for most common agricultural crops may be identified as potential areas for vetiver cultivation. It grows best in areas with warm summer and well-distributed rainfall.
Propagation
Vetiver can be propagated by tillers and slips. Tillers take longer time for growing and therefore, slips are the better planting material for propagation. Preferably it is propagated by slips. Plants are cut at 25-30 cm above ground and dug out for preparation of slips. The culms are divided into slips with 2-3 tillers. These slips are jabbed into ground like seedling. Although the growth may be slow initially, the plants develop quickly once roots are established. The plant responds to fertilizers and irrigation with massive tillering, and each tiller can be broken off and planted.
Raising of initial nursery
A nursery should be set up preferably on light soil so that plants can be pulled up easily. For quick multiplication, nursery should be manured liberally by FYM or Compost @20-25 t/ha. DAP @75 kg/ha may also be applied at the time of planting to encourage fast tillering the slips in the nursery should be planted at 30 x 30 cm apart. After second weeding urea @ 60 kg/ha may be top dressed. The multiplication rate could be about 80-100 in two steps a year. Nursery raised on 300-400 sq. m area may be sufficient for 1 hectare area within 6 months.
Land preparation
Vetiver field should be free of perennial weeds and shrubs. After clearing, the land is deep tilled. With the onset of pre-monsoon shower final land preparation is done.
Field layout and bed formation
For uniform cropping and higher root yield the fields are laid out into beds of convenient size.
Planting time
With pre-monsoon shower April- August is considered most ideal time for commercial cultivation. In flood affected areas the crop should be established before floodwater submerges it. Therefore, it should be planted before 2 months ahead of normal flood.
Planting
After division into slips the fibrous roots are also removed leaving 5-8 cm from the base of the root. These are planted in lines at 45 x 30 cm spacing. Flat bed planting followed by ridging (after 30 days of planting) produces higher roots and essential oil. Planting is done in holes 5-8 cm deep. The soil around the slips is pressed firmly and leveled. From an average sized clump about 20-30 healthy slips can be obtained. One-hectare area requires about 75,000 slips when planted at 45 x 30 cm spacing. If planting is done during rain free period, field should be irrigated immediately after planting.
Manuring and fertilization
In poor soils 40kg each of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium per acre is applied before final ploughing. In second year of crop growth 40 kg nitrogen is top-dressed after rain in June. In the first year depending on soil fertility and crop growth 20 kg N may be top-dressed at about 4 months after planting. Depending on availability, the crop may be given 10-12 t/ac FYM or compost at planting supplemented with urea one month after planting to stimulate growth.
Fertilizer requirement per crop cycle (18 months)/hectare
A fertilizer dose of 100 kg N, 40 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O per hectare is recommended.
In fertilizer form
Basal application:
Urea 90 kg
Single super phosphate (SSP) 250 kg
Muriate of potash (MOP) 67 kg being transplanted
Top-dress (after 4 months of planting)
Urea 45 kg
In second year
During June Urea 87 kg
Intercultural operations
Initial growth of vetiver for first 60-70 days is very slow, hence inter row space virtually remain vacant allowing infestation and faster growth of kharif weeds which compete with crop plants for light, moisture and nutrients. 2-3 weedings at an interval of about a month are needed during the initial period of growth. In the second year one weeding is done before harvest to facilitate the harvesting and avoid of any root of weeds getting mixed with roots of the crop.
Use of herbicides
Herbicide Atrazine @ 0.5 kg a.i/ha (50% a.i) as pre emergence to weed and before transplanting gives a weed free condition for first 75-90 days, after which the crop is able to cover the ground surface.
Earthing up Vetiver after shoot cutting
Earthing up after weeding is beneficial to the crop. Earthing up encourages root growth at the crown due to better rhizospheric environment provided to the growing plants.
Shoot cutting
The cutting of aerial portion with commencement of winter (November) increases tillering and consequently gives more roots per plant. Shoot cutting is done twice during the crop cycle. First shoot cutting is done at 30 cm height in planting year to achieve regeneration for second year, while second time cutting is done at 15-20 cm height before harvesting to facilitate digging of roots.
Inter cropping
Vetiver slips are planted in rainy season at a spacing of 45 x 30 cm. The crop growth in initial stages is very slow and inters row space remains free for weed infestation, which grow at a faster rate and compete with crop plants for moisture and nutrients. The open space can be used efficiently for raising intercrop without affecting the main crop yield. Growing of early maturing pulses like green gram, black gram, cluster bean (French bean) in kharif and toria and corianderin the subsequent rabi season found to improve the productivity and also give higher net profit per unit time and space.  Cowpea, Dhaincha seed can be sown in the row spaces and incorporate them after 50-60 days of growth as green manure. This will add organic matter, which ultimately is helpful for better root growth.
Planting on paddy field leaves
Vetiver grows well on the field levees, which can keep them stabilized. To avoid shading effect the foliage can be trimmed time to time. If planted in July – August with Sali rice, the root will be ready for harvest in second year Nov-Dec i.e., just after harvest of second crop.
Precaution
Vetiver by its nature grows best by the riverside. The economic part of the crop is its dug up roots upto a depth of 30-40 cm. Therefore, under any situation vetiver for its root production should not be undertaken in areas where soil erosion is a common feature. Though it can be grown even in erosion prone land with proper control measure, harvesting should be restricted to the central area of the standing crop, leaving thick, hedge like boundary line totally undisturbed.
Diseases and pests
Black scale insect
            The black scale insects rarely move, the young nymphs settle and insert their mouthparts. They suck the sap of the plant and the growth is checked and vigour is reduced, ultimately the plant may die. Spraying of metasystox @ 0.04% will be effective to control the scale insect.
Harvesting
Harvesting is done in between 15-18 months to get fully developed root system and high quality of oil. Harvesting earlier than 15 months after planting, the immature roots yield oil of poor quality with green earthy odour. Properly developed somewhat thicker roots, yields an oil of better quality and its optical rotation and specific gravity are higher, the odour fuller, richer, more lasting. Oils derived from older roots are usually of darker colour than the oils distilled from the younger roots. If the roots stay in ground for over two years, the yield of oil diminishes considerably as the root system tend to become woody and lose in essential oil content and the oil becomes very viscous with a dark colour but of high quality.
In general the crop is harvested after 15-18 months during the dry season from December to February for best quality oil. Oil content of root starts decreasing after20 months age considerably. For harvesting, the moist areas are taken up first. The water logged areas become dry enough in February for digging up the roots. After February due to rising temperature, the soil become harder and makes digging very difficult. At this stage the finer roots stay in the ground, which contain more oil resulting low yield per unit area.
Characteristics to determine correct harvesting age
The roots that possess the following characteristics have good oil content. It should
1. Expose a hard surface when the skin is peeled off
2. be thick, hard, long and wiry and
3. Give a very bitter taste when chewed
Digging
The stem portion is cut at a height of 15-20 cm and the clumps are uprooted. About 50-60 % of the roots come away with the clump when dig out by spade or tractor drawn single disc leaving the rest in the soil. The clumps are beaten on a piece of log to remove earth adhering to the roots and the roots are separated from the plants with a sharp knife. As far as possible, re-digging the soil also collects the roots left in the soil. One irrigation may be given before harvesting to facilitate digging if available. For mechanical harvesting a disc plough with single disc mounted on a tractor can be used which uproot the roots from 30-35 cm depth. This process saves manpower and also gives about 15 % higher root recovery over manual digging. The length of the roots varies from 10-35 cm according to the condition of growth, soil, climate etc of the locality. Thicker roots produce more oil. Very light or almost white roots contain very little oil.
Washing / Cleaning
The harvested roots contain large quantities of earth sticking to them. Immediately after harvest, the roots are washed gently in clean running water to remove the adhering earth taking care so that the finer roots are not lost.
Drying
            The cleaned roots are spread on drying grounds. The roots are turned over at regular intervals until dry. During this process foreign matter if any is removed from the mass. The cleaned and dried roots are sent to distillery or storage shed where they are allowed to mature. Drying is done under shade for 1-2 days, which improves the olfactory quality of the essential oil. Prolonged drying in the sun reduces the oil yield. Dry roots can be stored in shade for 60-70 days without loss of oil but quality improves appreciably.
Yield of roots
The age, the soil, climatic conditions and also the strain are important factors governing the yield of roots. On an average, 30-45 q/ha of dry root is obtained under good management. At 0.4% average recovery the oil yield of 12-20 kg oil/ha may be obtained.
Distillation
The essential oil is extracted from the roots by steam distillation. Freshly harvested roots on distillation give higher yield of oil than stored roots; the yield decreases progressively with the period of storage. The roots are soaked for 18-20 hours in water prior to distillation to render the root material soft and thereby further facilitate release of oil. Fresh roots when cut to lengths 2.5 cm – 5 cm increases recovery. As the most valuable quality constituents are contained in the high boiling fractions, the roots must be distilled for a prolonged period ranging from 20-24 hours. North Indian varieties yield 0.4 to 0.8 of oil. During distillation two fractions-lighter and heavier oils are obtained. In the start highly volatile lighter fraction released first and a considerable amount of which may escape before it gets cooled and collected in liquid phase. To avoid this loss a piece of marking cloth after cleaning is tied at delivery outlet in the swollen balloon shape in the receiver keeping it submerged in water. The lighter fraction that is likely to escape along with the steam/gas or running distillate water would be trapped in the cloth. As the distillation progress the heavier fraction will get deposited in the cloth and the lighter will pass through cloth and get collected in the receiver. At the end of the distillation the cloth is squeezed to get the oil.          This piece of cloth is repeatedly used till tear off. Before thrown off, the cloth may be washed by diethyl ether (solvent) to get back the adhering oil. This practice helps in increased recovery of oil. Traditionally copper vessel with S.S condenser is found good for vetiver since the oil react with free copper turns bluish in colour which fetches more prices in perfumery market. The traditionally distilled oil which often called “Ruhe khus” done in Kannauj type “Deg Vopka” although recovery is comparatively low fetches the highest price in perfumery market.
Quality aspects
Distillation technique plays an important role in oil quality. By adopting the right steam pressure and by adjusting the post harvest treatment of roots, yield as well as quality can be improved. There are hundreds of small constituents in vetiver oil. However, the ‘Khusimol’ content in oil, minimum of which should be 14% or more and low in caryophyllene. Besides extraction procedures the oil quality is governed by varietal selection, harvesting at proper age (15-18 months) and during dry period only.
Bi-products
Roots left after oil extraction is used for making cartons and many handicrafts items like Mats, Aasa (for sitting), pen-stand etc. A simple sharbat (syrup) can be prepared by using water obtained during distillation, which on analysis found to be tasty and best for health also.
The oil and its Uses
The oil is used extensively in perfume industry and in the manufacture of scented toiletries as fixative and also as odour contributor in base etc. It also has uses in the food industry as flavour agent. The essential oil is reddish dark brown when matured and has a woody, earthy smell that is almost musty. The oil has a strong odour (that may not be to everyone’s taste) and should be well diluted to avoid it being too overpowering in a blend. Vetiver oil is used as part of the woody notes for luxury perfumes. The oil of vetiver, patchouli and sandalwood in combination with jasmine and gardenia complex, is the base of the famous Crepe de Chine note. In addition to its importance in classical perfumery, vetiver oil is also used as base for many modern men’s colognes.
Medicinal uses
Therapeutically, vetiver oil has a profoundly relaxing effect on the nervous system, relieving tension and stress. It can be used to good effect in the treatment of insomnia. In India, vetiver oil is known as the oil of tranquility. In baths or in massage, vetiver is beneficial in the treatment of the symptoms of disorders such as arthritis, rheumatism and a chin, stiff muscles. It is warming and comforting and will help to relieve the tension that is often associated with chronic pain. Vetiver oil also benefits the circulatory system, stimulating and warming, especially when used in combination with massage. In skin care, the antiseptic and slightly astringent properties of vetiver can be used to good effect in the treatment of oily skin that is prone to spots.

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1. Vetiver belongs to the family ___________
2. Vetiver grass is a native of _____________
3. Two main types of the vetiver grass is __________ and _________
4. What are the three different systems of planting adopted by different growers?
5. Vetiver can be propagated through _____________ & __________

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Plant Profile      
Family                                     : Geraniaceae
English name                       : Geranium
Indian name                          : Geranium (Hindi), Pannirsoppur, Pannir patre (Kannada), Geranium (Tamil)
Species and                          : Pelargonium graveolens L.Herit, P.radula, P.fragrance
Varieties                                 : Algerian or Tunisian, Reunion or Bourbon,KKL-1, Sel-8, Hemanti, Bipuli, Kunti
Distribution                            : India, South Africa, Belgium, Chinna, Congo,Egypt, France, Madagascar, Morocco, ReunionIslands, Spain, former USSR countries
Uses                                       : Cosmetics, Perfumery

            Geranium (Pelargonium graveolens L.Herit.) is one of the important aromatic plants, yielding an essential oil which is highly priced for its very profound and strong rose-like odour. The plant is also known as rose geranium.  The chief constituent of the oil are geranial and citronellol.  The oil also contains α-pinene, β-pinene,   α-terpinene, myrcene, α-phellandrene, limonene, cis-ocimene, trans ocimene, p-cymene, terpinolene, cis-roseoxide, trans-rose oxide, methone, trans-linalool, iso-menthone, caryophyllene, geranyl acetate, nerol, geranyl formate, geranayl butyrate and geraniol.
The pure geranium oil is almost a perfume by itself and blends well with all other perfumes.  It is widely used in scenting soaps and for the isolation of rhodinal which forms part of most high-grade perfumes.  India is importing more than 20 t of this oil from other countries to meet the local demands of the Indian perfumery industries, in addition to an indigenous production of only about 20 t of oil annually.

Origin and Distribution
Geranium is a native of the Cape Province in South Africa.  It is commercially cultivated in France, Belgium, Spain, Morocco, Madagascar, Egypt, Reunion Island, Congo, China, India and the former USSR countries.  The world production of geranium oil is estimated at 250-300 t, whereas the demand is more than 500 t annually.  The first planting of high-yielding Pelargonium graveolens, introduced from Reunion Island was grown at Yercaud by a French planter, in the early twentieth century. From that time onwards it has been cultivated as a commercial crop, but only in high altitude areas with a milder climate.  However, the crop also comes up well in the South Indian plains. Presently, it is being commercially cultivated mainly in the Nilgiris and Kodaikanal Hills of Tamil Nadu and in and around Bangalore in Karnataka in an area of about 2 000 ha.
Description of the Plant
The commercial oil of geranium is obtained from Pelargonium graveolens, L.Herit. (2n=88) of the family Geraniaceae. There are about 600 species of the genus Pelargonium, many of which possess an agreeable odour.  Other species like P.radula, P.fragrance are of lesser importance and have not attained any commercial significance.
Geranium is a bushy, aromatic plant. The stem is cylindrical, woody at the base, pubescent, green when young and turning brown with age.  The leaves are alternate, stipulate, simple, with 5 primary lobes and secondary lobes and densely pubescent.  The leaves are highly aromatic in nature.  The inflorescence is umbellate and hairy. The flower is bisexual, hypogenous, with a pink corolla; the two posterior petals are larger with reddish-pumple markings.  There are 10 stamens, the filaments are sub equal, united at the base; the anthers are 7, dithecous and shed easily.  The ovary is hairy, superior, pentacarpellary and syncarpous; the style is hairy, breaking up distally into five stigma.

Leaf

Flower

Varieties

1. Algerian or Tunisian
This type of geranium is slender with flowers of a dark pink colour. It is being grown in the Nilgiris and is unsuitable for wet conditions. This variety yields 50-60% more oil with a more delicate odour then that of the Reunion type.
2. Reunion or Bourbon
Grown in the Nilgiris and Anamalais, the plant is sturdier with light-pink flowers and more suitable for wet conditions.  The oil content is higher during the summer months from April to June.  The terminal portion with 6 to 12 leaves contains more oil than the middle and basal portions.
In the evaluation trail of the Algerian and Reunion types, POG-7 and PG-20 respectively at the Horticulture Research Station, Kodaikanal, the clone PG-7 recorded 0.3% essential oil and 2.32 ml of oil per plant, and has been released under the name ‘KKL-1’’. The Indian Institute of Horticultural Research (IIHR), Bangalore, has found ‘Sel-8’ a Reunion type, as the highest yielder under Bangalore conditions and has recommended it for cultivation. ‘Hemanti’ ‘Bipuli’ and ‘Kunti’ are the other varieties released by the CIMAP, Lucknow, for cultivation in the plains of North India. Kelkar, Ooty, and IIHR Sel-8 are the other varieties available in this crop.
Soil
Geranium is shallow-rooted crop and, as such, it requires well drained porous soil.  The crop is found to perform well in red lateritic soils with a pH of 5.5-8.0, though a calcium rich porous soil is the best.
Climate
Geranium can be grown in temperate, subtropical and tropical climates at various altitudes from 1 000 to 2 200 m.  It thrives best in subtropical climates with a temperature ranging from 5 degree C to 23 degree C. However, temperatures below 3 degree C will kill the plant. Warm winters coupled with mild summer temperatures and, well-distributed annual rainfall ranging from 100-150 cm is ideal.  However, heavy rainfall results in water-logging, causes root-rot and stunted growth. It has been observed that it grows equally well at much lower altitudes and tolerates higher temperatures up to 43 degree C in the plains when grown under irrigated conditions.
Propagation
Geranium is easily propagated by cuttings, since there is no seed setting in geranium, vegetative propagation is must. Terminal cuttings about 20 cm long and consisting of about 8 nodes are the best suited material for propagation, as they give 80% rooting even without any treatment. However, the middle portion and basal cuttings are reported to give poor rooting, which can be improved but treating them for 6 minutes with growth regulators like IBA or IAA at 200 ppm. Thus, a rooting of 80% and 6505 respectively can be obtained.
The cuttings are planted in raised beds 3 m long and 1 m wide.  The soil should be well mixed with powdered FYM. The cuttings are planted closely at a spacing of 8-10 cm. Before planting, the cut ends of the cuttings are dipped in 0.1% Benlate solution. Before root initiation, temporary shade is provided and the beds are watered regularly. The nursery is sprayed with a 0.2% Urea solution at biweekly intervals and the cuttings are ready for transplanting.  They can also be rooted in polythene bags, which help to avoid damage to the root-system while planting in the main field. This practice ensures a high percentage of success in the field.
Recently, its propagation through leaf petioles had also been reported to give a good rooting percentage (75%), which will help to multiply this plant in larger numbers than the traditional method of propagation using 20 cm-long cuttings.  The CIMAP, Lucknow, has developed a protocol for large –scale production of geranium cell clones and plants have been obtained under field conditions with improved oil-yield and quality.
Planting and After-care  
About 30,000 cuttings are required for planting an area of 1 ha. Before planting, the land should be properly prepared by ploughing (disc) and brought to a fine tilth. Ridges and furrows are made, the application of fertilizer and irrigation should be done a day prior to planting.  The cuttings are carefully dug out from the nursery and planted at a spacing of 60 cm x 60 cm.  They must be irrigated immediately after planting.  Irrigation is continued on alternate days for about 10-15 days and then reduced to twice a week.  The schedule is modified during the winter and summer months at intervals of 7 to 10 days, depending on the situation.  Though geranium tolerates short periods of drought, water-logging of the crop must be completely avoided.  The crop c growth is slow initially; weeds should, therefore, be removed periodically.  Intercropping of cowpea or black gram is beneficial during the log phase and they do not affect the geranium crop. It has been experimentally observed at the CIMAP. Lucknow, that polyhouse cultivation reduces weed infestation, the number of irrigations and produced less weed biomass.
Manures and Fertilizers
Prior to transplanting the cuttings, 10 t of good quality FYM, 35 kg N,35 kg P2O5 and 35 kg K2O/ha are incorporated into the soil in the form of urea, super phosphate and  Muriate of potash.  A second dose of nitrogen at 35 kg/ha is applied about 2 months after the first application, Further, nitrogen is given in two equal split doses for each harvest-the first dose being just after the crop is harvested and the second two months later. Altogether, 210 kg/ha/yr of N is applied to the crop in six equal doses to cover three harvests.  Application of 30 kg N/ha (15 kg/ha as basal and 15 kg as a foliar spray with 1% urea solution, 45 and 90 days after basal application) is reported to increase herbage yield and oil yield by 447% and 140%, respectively, over the control.
In addition, the application of 20 kg/ha of zinc Sulphate and 10 kg/ha of boron has been reported to increase the herbage yield.  Similarly, an application of copper (20 kg/ha) and molybdenum (30 kg/ha/year) in four split doses after each harvest has been found to increase the yield by 37%.
Pests and Diseases
The incidence of pest and disease is not severe in the geranium crop.  However, it is found to be affected by wilt disease, caused by the Fusarium species, and Botrydeplodia theobromae, which are soil borne fungi.
Recently, Alternaria alternate has been reported to cause leaf blight in the Terai region and Kumaon Hills of Utter Pradesh and Sclerotium rolfsii causes, collar-rot disease and Rhizoctonia solani causes root-rot and wilt in the Kodaikanal region of Tamil Nadu.
To avoid wilt disease, the following prophylactic measures are recommended.

1. Dip the cuttings in 0.03% Benlate solution at the time of planting in the nursery.
2. Prior to transplanting the rooted cuttings must be again dipped in 0.03% Benlate solution and then planted.
3. The crop is sprayed with 0.03% Benlate solution about 2 weeks before it is harvested. Also after the harvest it is repeated, so that the cut-ends are drenched with the fungicide.
4. It has been observed at the CIMAP, Lucknow, that the cultivation of geranium in association with marigold (Togetes minuta) improves the survival of geranium plants over the monsoon time in the North Indian plains.  Roots-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne incognita and M.hapla, a have been found to affect the geranium plant.  Application of Aldicarb @ 20 kg/ha to the soil reduces the incidence of root-knot.

Harvesting
Geranium is harvested 4 months after transplanting, when the leaves begin to turn light-green and exhibit a change from a lemon-like odour to that of rose.  However, this requires careful observation and experience. The crop should be harvested using a sharp sickle and sent for distillation immediately.  The use of sharp sickle is important as it minimizes the jerks, pulls and damage to the crop while harvesting. After every harvest, hoeing, fertilizer application and irrigation are done according to the schedule.  The plant then puts forth fresh shoots, grows faster, and reaches the next harvesting stage in 4 months.  Thus, a total of 3 harvests can be obtained for 3-6 years.  Cultivation under polyhouse conditions is reported to reduce the harvest time by 21 days.
The essential oil is distributed over the green parts of the plant, particularly in the leaves.  The oil content is higher during the summer months, from April to June.  The terminal portion with 6-12 leaves contains more oil than the middle and basal portions.
Yield
The quality and yield of oil will be better if the crop is harvested at the appropriate time of maturity.  For a higher yield, a good plant population in the field is necessary.  A minimum of 25,000 plants should be maintained in a hectare in a year which, in turn, may yield 15 kg of oil on distillation.  The recovery of the oil ranges from 0.08 to 0.15%, depending upon the season of harvest and type of material. Cultivation under polyhouse cover is reported to increase herb and oil yields up to 53% over the conventional planting of the geranium crop.
Distillation of Oil
The freshly-harvested terminals are used for the distillation of oil.  The plant material is stacked near the stills for about 12 to 24 hours.  This results in a slight fermentation and splitting of the glycosides, which increases the yield of oil.  The oil is extracted by a simple distillation method.  The herbage is tightly packed in a still over the perforated grid and tamped down tightly and the still-head is clamped shut.            The steam is generated in a separate boiler and conveyed to the still.  The oil volatilizes and escapes along with the steam vapours, which is later condensed by passing it through a condenser with running cold water.  The condensed oil is separated from the water by the differential density method and clarified by filtering it with activated carbon.

1. Geranium is a native of __________
2. ____________ can be obtained as a bye-product from geranium stem and leaves after extraction of oil
3. Oil content of geranium ranges from __________
4. Propagation of geranium is __________
5. Botanical name for geranium _________

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1. Botanical name of Davana is ____________
2. What are the uses of Davana _____________
3. The inflorescence present in Davana is ____________
4. Davana is propagated by ____________________
5. Oil recovery percentage of Davana is _________________

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COCONUT (Cocus nucifera, Palmae) The coconut palm, Cocus nucifera L., is one of the most beautiful and useful palms in the world. It provides a variety of useful products like food, fuel and timber. Every part of the tree is being utilized for some purpose or other and hence, it is called Kalpavriksha meaning tree of heaven which provides all the necessities of life. It is grown in India in about 1.51 million ha. With an annual production of about 9283.4 million nuts. It ranks third in world in area and production, first and second being Indonesia and Philippines respectively. Among the different coconut growing states in India, Kerala, Tamilnadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh account for nearly 90persent in area and production.

Cultivars and Hybrids

Varieties released by TNAU, Coconut Research Center – Veppankulam

1. The garden should have palms with record consistently high yields and high proportion of heavy bearers.
2. They should not be located under favourable environment.
3. They should be free from disease and pests.

1. The palm should be strong, stout and growing straight.
2. Leaf scars on the palms should be closely spaced.
3. The palms should be regular bearer with annual yield of more than 80 nuts and copra contents not less than 150 g per nut.
4. Palms should have reached full bearing stage and have been giving consistently high yields for atleast four years.
5. Palms of above 60 years should be avoided.
6. Palms should have atleast 30 fully opened leaves on the crown
7. The leaves should have short strong petioles with wide leaf base firmly attached to the stem. Their arrangement should provide support to the bunches.
8. Each leaf axil should have one inflorescence with large number of spikes and one or two female flowers per spike.
9. Bunch stalk should be short stout and strong.
10. Palms should have medium sized nuts (about 1200 g dry weight / nut) with round and oblong shape. Husked be large (about 570 g) with thick kernels.
11. Palms, which produce barren nuts or those shedding large number of nuts in the immature stage, should be discarded.

1. Collect seed nuts from February – May
2. Harvest only fully matured nuts (11-12 months old)
3. Nuts should not be damaged while harvesting
4. Discard the nuts having irregular shape, size and improper development
5. Select seed nuts of uniform size with thin husk weighing above 100 g.
6. Selected seed nuts should float on water vertically. The content of copra should be more than 150 g.

1. 1. Select site with well drained coarse textured soil near dependable water source
   2. Prepare the raised beds to avoid of water stagnation during rainy season
   3. Sandy soil is the best for raising seedlings on large scale
   4. If the soil is not sandy, treat the soil with lidane as a precaution against white grub and termites.

1. The seed nuts should be sown in long and narrow beds at a spacing of 40 x 30 cm during May-June in 20-25 cm deep trenches. However the length and width of nursery beds should be kept as per ones convenience.
2. The seed nuts with less nut water and seed nuts of dwarf cultivars may be sown horizontally to ensure early germination. Discard nuts in which water has dried.
3. Before sowing it is advisable to dip seed nuts in suspension of Lindane (400 g in 100 litres of water) as an additional precaution against white grub and termites.

• 5. Care and Management of nursery
  1. Regular watering to be done after rainy season
  2. Mulching and shading should be done after rainy season
  3. Keep nursery free of weeds
  4. Conduct regular surveillance for any incidence of pests and diseases
  6. Selection of seedlings Prior to transplanting selection of seedlings is utmost important. The following points will help in selection of superior quality seedlings
  1. Select early germinated seedlings
  2. Select seedlings which show early splitting, short petiole and broad leaves
  3. Select seedlings which are ready for transplanting in 9-12 months
  4. Select seedlings with well developed root system
  5. Select seedlings having thick and short collar region
  Preparation of land and planting: The depth of pits will depend upon the soil type. Normally a pit size of 1.0 X 1.0 X 1.0 m is dug and filled up to 50 cm depth with sand and powdered cow dung. However, when the water table is high, planting at the surface or even on mounds may be necessary but digging pits and filling has to be done. System of planting Spacing of palms requires careful consideration.

  	Planting system	Spacing
  1	Triangular	7.6m
  2	Square	7.6×7.6m, 8x8m, 9×9 m
  3	Single Hedge	6.5m in rows – 9m between rows
  4	Double Hedge	6.5 to 6.5m in rows – 9m between pairs of rows

  In well-drained soil, seedlings can be transplanted with the beginning of south-west monsoon. If irrigated facilities are available, it is advisable to take up planting at least a month before the monsoon sets in so that the seedling get well established before the onset of heavy rains. Care of young palms Young palms require good care in the early of growth. The transplanted seedling should be shaded and irrigated properly especially during the summer months. Provision of proper drainage is also equally important in areas subject to water logging. The pits should be cleared of weeds periodically.   Soil washed down by the rains and covering the collar of the seedlings should also be removed. The pits should be gradually filled up as the seedlings grow. Manuring As coconut yields throughout the year it takes heavy amount of nutrients from soil especially N, K and Cl. Therefore, regular Manuring from the first year of planting is essential to ensure good vegetative growth, early flowering and   bearing and high yields. The fertilizer requirements of different coconut growing states are given below:

  States	Doses (g) /Palm
  	FYM (kg)	N	P2O5	K2O	MgO
  Kerala-General	50	500	320	1200	–
  Kerala-Root wilt areas	50	500	500	1000	500
  Karnataka	50	680	450	900	–
  Maharastra	50	750	225	900	–
  Tamil Nadu	50	560	320	1200	–

  The first application of fertilizers should be done three months after planting (nearly 1/10th above dose) while during the second year, one- third of the dosage recommended for adult palm may be applied in two splits doses and during the third year, 2/3 of the dosages recommended for adult palm may be applied and from the fourth year onwards, the full dose recommended may be applied. After the receipt of summer showers, 1/3 of the recommended dose of fertilizers for a year may be spread around the palms within a radius of 1.8 m and forked in. the remaining 2/3 of recommended dose of fertilizer may be spread over 50 kg of the green leaf or compost per palm in circular basins of 1.8 m radius and 25 cm depth during September / October and the basins covered. Irrigation and soil moisture conservation          The coconut palm responds to summer irrigation. Production of female flowers and setting percentage increases considerably due to irrigation. Since spadix initiation to ripening of nuts takes nearly 42 months, the full benefit of irrigation can be felt only after three years. Under West Coast conditions, 2 cm irrigation once in 4-5 days during December to May is beneficial in sandy loam soils. In areas where water is scare, drip irrigation system can be adopted. This requires only 30 liters of water per day per palm is against 200 liters per palm in conventional irrigation.        Burying the coconut husk or coir dust is one of the most effective ways of conserving soil moisture. These husks are coir dust can act as sponge and absorb and retain moisture about six and times respectively to their own weight and slowly release to the coconut periods during dry periods. As the husk or dust breaks down slowly, their effect will last for 4 to 6 years and 8 to 10 years respectively. On decomposition they also add K to soil. These husks and dusts can be add in pits or trenches taken in between the trees but in all the cases the depth should be 0.6 m and 1.8 m away from the bole. Husks or dusts can be added in alternate layers with soil. Intercultivation Regular Intercultivation is very essential to step up and maintain the production at a high level. Tillage operations like digging the garden with spade, ploughing, forming small mounds before the end of monsoon and making shallow basins with a radius of about 2 m at the beginning of monsoon and filling up at the close of monsoon are beneficial to the trees. Method of Intercultivation will depend upon local conditions, availability of labour, size of holding, soil type, topography and distribution of rainfall. Cover cropping is recommended where inter and mixed cropping is followed to prevent soil erosion in coconut gardens. Leguminous crops such as Mimosa invisa, Stylosanthes gracilis and Calapogonium mucunoides are generally recommended. Green manure crops like sun hemp (Crotalaria juncea) and Kolinji (Tephrosia purpurea) are also raised and ploughing in during Aug-Sep. These crops can be sown in APRIL- MAY when pre-monsoon showers are received. Inter and mixed cropping In pure coconut garden when palms are spacing at 7.5 x 7.5 as much as 75% of the available area is not effective utilized. Besides, a pure coconut grooves utilize only half of the available light. Hence, a variety of intercrops like pineapple, banana, groundnut, chillies, sweet potato and tapioca can be raised in coconut gardens after the palm attaining the height of 5-6 m. In older plantations cocoa, pepper, cinnamon, clove and nutmeg can be grown as mixed crop. in places where rainfall is not well distributed, irrigation may be necessary during summer months.However, these crops are to be adequately, separately manured in addition to the manures applied to the coconut palm. Mixed farming by raising fodder grasses such as hybrid Napier grass, guinea grass along with leguminous fodder crops such as Stylosanthes grasilis. Coconut gardens can support 4 –5 dairy animals. The cattle manure generated from the system when applied to coconut gardens improves the soil fertility considerably. Pest management Rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros) Symptoms The adult beetle bores into the unopened fronds and spathes. The attacked frond when fully opened shows characteristic triangular cuts. Control 1. Provide field sanitation to prevent breeding of beetles. 2. Hook out the beetles from the attacked palms by using beetle hook. 3 The topmost three leaf axils around the spindle may be filled with any of the following mixtures as a prophylactic measure: (a) Sevidol 8G 25 g + fine sand 200 g, which is to be done thrice in a year in April-May, September-October and December-January. (b) Naphthalene balls 10.5 g (approx. three balls) covered with fine sand, once in 45 days. 4. Treat manure pits and other possible breeding sites with 0.01% carbaryl on w/w basis. Treatment will have to be repeated every three months. 5. Release Baculovirus oryctes infected adults @ of 10-15 / ha to bring down the pest population. 6. Inoculation of breeding sites with entomopathogenic fungus Metarrhizium anisopliae (@ 5 x 1011 spores / ml) gives effective control. Red palm weevil (Rhyncophorus ferrugineus) Symptoms The diagnostic symptoms are the presence of holes on the stem, oozing out of a viscous brown fluid and extrusion of chewed up fibrous matter through the hole, longitudinal splitting of leaf base and wilting of central shoot. Sometimes the gnawing sound produced by the feeding grubs inside will also be audible.       Control 1. Field sanitation should be given prime importance. 2. Avoid making steps or any other injury on the tree trunks to reduce the loci of infestation. 3. Leaf axil filling as suggested in the case of rhinoceros beetle will be useful against the red palm weevil also. 4. When green leaves are cut from the palms, stumps of not less than 120 cm may be left on the trees in order to prevent successful inward movement of the grubs through the cut end. 5. In attacked palms, observe for the bore- holes and seal them except the top most one. Through the top most hole, pour 1% carbaryl or 0.2% trichlorphon or 0.1% endosulfan suspension @ one litre per palm, using a funnel. 6. When the pest infestation is through the crown, clean the crown and slowly pour the insecticidal suspension. 7. As an alternative, apply 1% DDVP or aluminum phosphide (for limited use only) one or two tablets per palm as a curative measure. 8. Coconut log traps with fermenting toddy or pineapple or sugarcane activated with yeast or molasses can be set in coconut plantation to attract and trap the free floating population of red palm weevil. Incorporate any of the insecticide to each trap to kill the weevils trapped. 9. Use of pheromone trap for attracting and killing adult weevils @ one trap per 2 ha. Leaf eating/black headed caterpillar (Opisina arenosella) Symptoms The caterpillar feeds on green matter from the lower leaf surface, remaining within galleries of silk and frass. The attack will be severe during summer months from January-May. Control 1. As a prophylactic measure, the first affected leaves may be cut and burnt during the beginning of the summer season. 2. Arrange for the release of larval / pupal parasitoids, Goniozus nephantidis, Elasmus nephantidis (brown species) and Brachymeria nosatoi. 3. When infestation is very severe and if the biocontrol is not likely to be effective, sprays the undersurface of the fronds with dichlorvos 0.02%, Malathion 0.05%, quinalphos 0.05%, endosulfan 0.05% or phosalone 0.05%. Note: Application of the insecticides should be followed by liberation of larval and pupal parasites from the 21st day. Cockchafer beetle (Leucopholis coneophora) Symptoms The soil inhabiting white grubs cause damage to the roots of coconut palm. The attack is common in sandy tracts. The infested palms turn pale yellow and there will be considerable reduction in yield. Control 1. Collection and destruction of adults during the monsoon period from adjacent vegetation (in the evening). 2. Plough or dig the infested soil synchronizing with pre-monsoon showers. 3. Treat the soil with phorate 10G @ 100 g/palm or drench with chloropyriphos 0.04% suspension. The treatment should be given twice, first during April-May after the receipt of pre-monsoon showers and second during the month of September. Note: Wherever possible, light traps may be set up to attract and trap adult beetles. Coried bug (Paradasynus rostratus) Symptoms The attacked buttons become deformed with characteristic crevices on the husk below the perianth with gum exudations and the tender nuts become barren. Control Apply 0.1% carbaryl or endosulfan suspension on the newly opened inflorescence after the receptive phase of the female flowers and spray the entire crown excluding the leaves and older bunches. Note: The insecticide may be applied according to the severity of infection in a need-based manner. Coconut eriophyid mite (Aceria [Eriophyes] guerreronis) Coconut eriophyid mite, a recently introduced pest is spreading at an alarming rate in Kerala. It is a microscopic worm like mite infesting young buttons colonizing under the perianth. Symptoms The earliest symptom on 2-3 month old buttons is pale yellow triangular patches seen below the perianth. Later, these patches become brown. Severely affected buttons may fall. As the buttons grow, brown patches lead to black necrotic lesions with longitudinal fissures on the husk. Uneven growth results in distortion and stunting of nuts leading to reduction in copra yield. In severe cases, the losses are compounded because the quality of fibre is reduced and distorted nuts increase the labour requirements for dehusking.Management 1. Collect and destroy all the fallen buttons of the affected palm. 2. Apply 2% Neem oil + garlic emulsion or commercial Neem formulation azardirachtin 0.004% (Neemazal T/S 1% @ 4 ml per litre of water) or micronized wettable sulphur 0.4 % in the crown on young bunches. In large coconut plantations, dicofol 0.1% can be applied after taking adequate precautions. However, spraying of dicofol should be avoided in homesteads. When rocker sprayer is used 1.0 to 1.5 litres of spray fluid per palm is required. If a hand sprayer is used, the spray solution required may be about 500 to 750 ml. Spraying has to be done on second to seventh bunches from top avoiding un pollinated inflorescence. Care should be taken to see that spray fluid reaches the perianth region of third, fourth and fifth bunches since these bunches harbour maximum number of mites. Three rounds of spraying are recommended in a year viz., March-April before the onset of southwest monsoon, in August-September during the dry spell between the southwest and northeast monsoons and in December-January after the northeast monsoon so that all the emerging bunches in the vulnerable stage receive one round of spraying. Rational rotation of the above pesticides may be adopted to avoid chances of resistance. Preparation of Neem oil + garlic emulsion (2%) To prepare 10 litres of 2% Neem oil + garlic emulsion, 200 ml Neem oil, 200 g garlic and 50 g ordinary bar soap are required. Slice the bar soap and dissolve in 500 ml lukewarm water. Grind 200 g of garlic and take the extract in 300 ml of water. Pour the 500 ml soap solution in 200 ml Neem oil slowly and stir vigorously to get a good emulsion. Mix the garlic extract in the Neem oil + soap emulsion. Dilute this 1 litre stock solution by adding 9 litres of water to get 10 litres of 2 % Neem oil + garlic emulsion. As per the recommendation of the National Level Steering Committee, a holistic approach has to be adopted in the management of the coconut eriophyid mite. Hence, in addition to the plant protection measures mentioned above, the following measures can be adopted: 1. Improving nutrient status by applying organic manure at the rate of 50 kg and Neem cake 5 kg per palm per year. Also apply the recommended dose of fertilizers in two split applications. 2. Growing compatible intercrops / mixed crops. 3. Providing adequate irrigation. Mealy bug Symptoms Mealy bugs infest the unopened heartleaf and inflorescence. As a result, the leaves become highly stunted, suppressed, deformed and present a crinkled appearance. It is often confused with the leaf rot symptoms. The affected inflorescences are malformed and do not open. Even if they open, they do not bear nuts. Button mealy bugs colonize under the perianth lobes of tender nuts. Infested nuts harbouring gravid mealy bugs remain on the spadix, which serve as inoculum for further spread. Control Remove and destroy all dried up inflorescence and unproductive buttons. Apply non-residual phosphatic insecticides like dimethoate 0.1%, quinalphos 0.05 %, and fenthion 0.1% at the site of infestation. Neem garlic emulsion 2% applied on infested bunches checks button mealy bugs. Rodents Rats damage tender nuts by forming characteristic holes. Shed nuts can be seen at the base of the palm. Control 1. Use warfarin-based wax blocks containing 0.025% active ingredient at intervals of three months for reducing rodent population. 2. Place wax blocks of 0.005% bromadiolone in coconut crown of the infested palms at 3 to 4 days interval till the bait is no more consumed. Disease management Phytophthora diseases Phytophthora palmivora has been found to affect seedlings and adult palms causing bud rot and immature nut fall commonly known as mahali. Bud rot Symptoms Palms of all age are liable to be attacked but normally young palms are more susceptible, particularly during monsoon when the temperature is low and humidity is very high. In seedlings, the spear leaf turns pale and comes off with a gentle pull. In adult palms, the first visible symptom is the colour change of the spear, which becomes pale and breaks at the base and hangs down. The tender leaf base and soft tissues of the crown rot into a slimy mass of decayed material emitting a foul smell. The rotting slowly progresses downwards, finally affecting the meristem and killing the palms. This is accompanied by drooping of successive leaves. Even then, nuts that are retained on the palm may grow to maturity. The disease proves fatal if not checked at the early stages, before damage of the bud. Management 1. In early stages of the disease (when the heartleaf starts withering) cut and remove all affected tissues of the crown. Apply Bordeaux paste and protect it from rain till normal shoot emerges. 2. Burn all disease-affected tissues removed from the palm. 3. Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture on spindle leaves and crown of disease affected as well as neighboring palms, as a prophylactic measure. Palms that are sensitive to copper containing fungicides can be protected by mancozeb. Small, perforated sachets containing 2 g of mancozeb may be tied to the top of leaf axil. When it rains, a small quantity of the fungicide is released from the sachets to the leaf base, thus protecting the palm. 4. Adopt control measures for rhinoceros beetle. 5. Provide adequate drainage in gardens. 6. Adopt proper spacing and avoid over crowding in bud rot prone gardens. Mahali Symptoms Shedding of female flowers and immature nuts are the common symptoms of the disease. Lesions appear on the young fruits or buttons near the stalk, which later lead to the decay of the underlying tissues and endosperm. Control Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture or copper oxychloride preparation (0.5%) on the crown of palms, once before the monsoon and once or twice later on at intervals of 40 days. Root (wilt) disease Symptoms The characteristic symptom is the flaccidity of leaflets. Yellowing of older leaves, necrosis of leaflets and deterioration and decay of root system are other salient features of the disease. The leaflets curve inwardly to produce ribbing so that the whole frond develops a cup like appearance. Abnormal shedding of buttons and immature nuts are also noticed. Management Coconut root (wilt) is a non-lethal debilitating disease and the affected palms survive for a long period giving a reasonably good yield. The root (wilt) affected palms are susceptible to diseases like leaf rot and pests like rhinoceros beetle and red palm weevil. So there is a chance of confusing the pests and disease symptom with the root (wilt) disease. Negligence on the management aspects aggravates the malady. Efficient management of palms suspected to be affected by coconut root (wilt) disease demands control of all pests and diseases and imparting natural resistance and health to the palms through proper manuring and agronomic practices. A package of management practices for the effective management of root (wilt) disease is given below: 1. Rogue out palms that are affected severely by root (wilt) and yield less than 10 nuts / palm / year and those, which have contracted the disease before flowering. Replant with disease tolerant material / high yielding hybrids (Chandrasankara). 2. Apply fertilizers for coconut palms in average management at the rate of 0.34 kg N, 0.17 kg P2O5 and 0.68 kg K2O / palm / year in the form of urea, rock phosphate and muriate of potash, respectively. For palms under good management, fertilizers may be given @ of 0.5 kg N, 0.32 kg P2O5 and 1.2 kg K2O / palm / year. 3. In addition to the above, apply 50 kg cattle manure or green manure and 1 kg of lime / palm / year. Magnesium may be supplied @ 500 g MgO per palm per year in the Onattukara region (sandy soil) and 100 g MgO in the remaining areas. The cheapest source of MgO is magnesite (MgCO3). The magnesium in magnesite is acid soluble. Hence it may be preferred in acid soils. 4. Growing green manure crops like sun hemp, Sesbania, cowpea and Calapogonium in the coconut basin and their incorporation in situ is beneficial as the practice reduces the intensity of the root (wilt) and increases the nut yield. The ideal green manure crops for the sandy and alluvial soils are cowpea and Sesbania, respectively. 5. Under rainfed conditions, apply fertilizers in two splits, 1/3rd at the time of early southwest monsoon and 2/3rd before the northeast monsoon. Under irrigated conditions apply fertilizers in three equal splits (April-May, August-September and December-January). 6. Apply fertilizers and manures in 10 cm deep circular basins at a radius of 2 m from the bole of the palm. 7. When the crop is grown under the bund and channel system, de silt the channel and strengthen the bunds during summer months. 8. Follow strictly all the prescribed prophylactic measures against leaf rot disease, red palm weevil, rhinoceros beetle etc. so as to ensure that the palms are not debilitated. To maintain the productivity of the palms, prophylactic measures are of great importance. Leaf rot Symptoms The first symptom is the appearance of water-soaked brown lesions in the spear leaves of root-wilt affected palms. Gradually these spots enlarge and coalesce resulting in extensive rotting. As the leaf unfurls the rotten portions of the lamina dry and get blown off in wind, giving a ‘fan’ shape to the leaves. Some times, the symptom becomes very acute and the spear fails to unfurl. This disease is a fungal complex initiated predominantly by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Exserohilum rostratum and Fusarium spp. Management 1. Remove the rotten portions from the spear and the two adjacent leaves. 2. Pour 300 ml of fungicidal solution at the base of the spear. This can be prepared by mixing hexaconazole 5 EC 2 ml or mancozeb 3 g in 300 ml water. 3. Treat the top two leaf axils with insecticide preparation. This can be prepared by mixing phorate 10 G / sevidol / carbaryl 20 g with 200 g sand. 4. Spray crowns and leaves with 1% Bordeaux mixture or 0.5% copper oxychloride formulations or 0.4% mancozeb in January, April-May and September. While spraying, care has to be taken to spray the spindle leaf. Stem bleeding Symptoms Exudation of the reddish brown liquid through the growth cracks mostly at the basal part of the trunk and bleeding patches higher up in the trunk are characteristic symptoms. One or more lesions, lying close by, may coalesce to form large patches. The liquid that oozes out dries up and turns black. The tissues beneath the bleeding points decay and become yellowish. The lesions spread upwards as the disease progresses. In advanced stages, the leaf size reduces leading to reduction in crown size. The rate of leaf production slows down. The production of bunches is affected and nut shedding takes place. The trunk gradually tapers towards the apex. The progress of the disease is faster during July to November. Causal organism The fungus, Thielaviopsis paradoxa is the causal agent. Growth cracks on the trunk, severe summer followed by heavy down pour, water stagnation, and imbalance in nutrition, excess salinity and stress can act as predisposing / aggravating factors. Control 1. Chisel out completely the affected tissues and paint the wound with tridemorph 5%. Apply coal tar after 1-2 days. 2. Destroy the chiseled materials by burning. Avoid any mechanical injury to trunk. 3. Apply neem cake @ 5 kg per palm in the basin along with other organics. 4. Root feed with tridemorph 5%, thrice a year during April-May, September-October and January-February to prevent further spread of lesions. 5. Apply tridemorph @ 25 ml in 25 litre of water as soil drenching once in four months. Grey blight This is caused by the fungus Pestalotia palmarum. Symptoms Symptoms appear in the mature leaves of the outer whorl as yellow specks encircled by a greyish band which later become greyish white. The spots coalesce into irregular necrotic patches causing extensive leaf blight. In advanced stages, the tips and margins of the leaflets dry and shrivel giving a burnt appearance. Control Remove severely affected older leaves and burn. Spray the trees with 1% Bordeaux mixture or propiconazole 0.3%. Tanjore wilt (Ganoderma lucidum) Symptoms This disease is of recent occurrence in many parts of Kerala, especially in the districts of Palakkad, Malappuram, Thrissur, Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram and Wayanad. Middle aged palms were seen fatally affected. The characteristic symptom of the disease is the rotting of the basal portion of the stem. The bark turns brittle and often gets peeled off in flakes, leaving open cracks and crevices. The internal tissues are discoloured and disintegrated, emitting a bad smell. Mild bleeding occurs on the basal region. The tissues on the bleeding spots are soft to touch. Extensive damage of the root system following root rotting has been observed. Ultimately the palm dies off. Control 1. Apply organic manure @ 50 kg / palm. 2. Apply neem cake @ 5 kg / palm / year. 3. Reduce fertilizer application to one-fourth of the recommended dose. 4. Drench the basin with 40 litres of 1% Bordeaux mixture or tridemorph 0.1% or any other copper fungicide to soak soil up to 15 cm depth at quarterly intervals. 5. Root feed with tridemorph 2 ml mixed with 100 ml water at quarterly intervals. 6. Avoid flood irrigation in order to prevent the possible spread of the pathogen through soil. 7. Isolate the affected palm from the healthy ones by digging a trench of size 1 m deep and 50 cm wide, 1.5 m away from the bole of the infected palm. 8. Avoid growing leguminous crops in and around the garden. Button shedding The shedding of buttons in the coconut is attributed to the following reasons. 1. Pathological conditions 2. Attack of insect pests 3. Nutritional deficiencies 4. Soil and climatic variations 5. Defects in pollination and fertilization 6. Structural defects in the flower 7. Abortion of embryos 8. Limited capacity of the tree to bear fruits 9. Unfavourable conditions such as deficit of moisture, water logging and lack of aeration. The causes of button shedding may be identified and appropriate remedial measures adopted. Harvesting Fully matured nuts, which can be recognized by shaking the nuts, should be alone harvested to get the maximum yield of copra and oil. Frequent to harvest varies from place to place. In any parts of Kerala harvesting done at 45 days interval during summer months and at 60 days interval during rainy seasons. Hence 35% of total nuts obtained during hot months i.e., from March- May and least crop is obtained during rainy months. Harvested is done by climbing the tree. Yield It is influenced by the Agro- climatic conditions, cultural practices such as Manuring, irrigation, cropping system and control of pests and diseases etc. on an average, a tall variety yielding 60 – 80 nuts per palm per year is considered ideal. VALUE ADDED PRODUCTS OF COCONUT Coconut Products The coconut products can be broadly classified into two categories, viz food products and commercial products. Some of the important products have been included in the following: 1. Food Products Wet meat or kernel The kernel or endosperm of the ripe coconut is an important food material in the coconut growing areas. The gratings of the kernel are an essential ingredient of common household dishes. The milk or cream obtained by squeezing the grated kernel and diluted with water goes into many preparations.  It also serves as a base for the preparation of various food products of commercial importance. As nut starts ripening, the moisture, ash, protein and the sugar contents starts decreasing but fat content increases.  The bottled coconut milk is used as a substitute for cow’s milk and the coconut syrup is prepared out of coconut milk, sugar and citric acid. Coconut milk is a rich source of cytokinin. Desiccated coconut It is the dried disintegrated coconut meat of fully matured nuts which have been stored for a month before dehusking. This state facilitates the subsequent dehusking operations because the kernel detaches itself from the shell during the storage period. The dehusked nuts are washed, sterilized, and desiccated at a temperature of 77° to 82° Celsius for 40-45 minutes.Edible copra Ball copra is prepared out of fully matured (>12 months old) nuts. The unhusked nuts can be stored for about 8 –12 months and during this period the kernel detaches itself the shell and gives a rattling sound, when it is shaken. In another method, fully –matured nuts are dehusked and cut into two halves to make cup copra. They are then   sun or artificially dried and stored. Coconut water The liquid endosperm of the tender coconut between the age group of 5-7 months makes a refreshing drink during summer and also in the case of gastroenteristis, diarrohea and against dehydration of tissues and to eliminate poisonous substances through kidney.  Coconut water is also used as a’ culture media in various’ microbiological studies. Toddy products Toddy is a sugar containing juice, obtained by tapping the unopened spadix. The unopened spathe is bent and its 4-5cm length needs to be beaten everyday in order to rupture the cells and induce the flow of sap. An earthen receptacle is placed for the collection of sap. The flow of sap is slow in the beginning and increases in the course. The shearing of the tip and beating of the inflorescence is continued second till a spadix is also brought into production. By this method on an average about 15 –18 litres of toddy is extracted in one month.  The young palms produce little toddy compared to older ones. Dwarf palms are highly suitable for this purpose as it easy to tap them but the yield is lower than the tall palms. Tapping toddy increases the yield of poor bearers but decreases the copra content and hence low oil content. Fresh toddy if not collected under sterilized condition, rapidly gets fermented and the sugar turns into alcohol (5.8%). On distillation, it yields strong liquor known as arrack. 2. COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS Milling Copra Copra with moisture content of less than 6% and free from diseases and pests used for the production of oil referred as milling copra. In conventional industry, the copra production destroys vitamin E and sundried copra develops   Aspergillus flavus    which on consumption damages the liver.  Therefore, for oil production, the ball copra which is well cured with less than 6% moisture is used. Coconut oil The traditional method of obtaining coconut oil through coconut crushing by expeller’s leaves about 7-8% oil in the cake and all the proteins and carbohydrates also go as animal feed. This expelled oil further requires refining to lower free fatty acid (FFA) content for better flavour and colour. Coconut oil is obtained by wet processing has more saturated fatty acids and hence resistant to oxidative rancidity, but retains pleasing flavour when refined easily digestible and stable in flavour. The virgin oil is crystal clear and has full coconut fragrance. It retains vitamin E and develops no aflatoxin due to elimination of intermediate copra drying step. It can directly be used as hair oil or baby skin lotion. Because of lower FFA and moisture contents, no flavour or colour develops and thus no refining is required. The absence of protein and carbohydrate residues and haziness prolong its shelf life. The consumption pattern of the coconut oil indicates that out of the total oil produced, 50% is used as hair and skin oil, 35% for edible purposes and the remaining 15% for industrial purpose.White fibre or yarn fibre It is also  known as mat fibre and extracted from green husks by bacteriological retting (husks are soaked in  water for 6-8 months).Usually 9-10 month old nuts are used for the preparation of longest and finest yarns, which are in turn made into ropes, mats, etc. Coconut fibre (coir) It   is an important product obtained from the fruit husk. The fully matured (12-month old) nuts yield about 35 to 40 % coir. Nuts of 11 months old have still higher coir content ranging from 50-55% while in 9-12 months old nuts it is high as 70%. Brown fibre It is produced from the husk of ripe dry nuts by extracting the fibre by mechanical defibring process. It is of inferior quality. Coconut water beverage The water phase of coconut with additives and formulations imparting tender coconut water like taste renders this thirst- quenching hygienically packed beverage suitable for serving. This was otherwise wasted and was effluent nuisance due to BOD value in conventional plants. Coconut shell The hard brown cover of the kernel shell is also used for the preparation of charcoal, activated carbon and coconut shell powder. Coconut shell activated carbon is best suited for deodorizing and decolouration of sugar syrup used in soft drinks and coconut shell powder is also used in manufacture of cardboards.

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  1. The origin of coconut is _____________
  2. Coconut palms are broadly classified in to ____________ groups
  3. List out the important varieties of coconut?
  4. Important pest & disease in coconut?
  5. List out the value added products in coconut?

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ARECANUT (Areca catechu, Palmae)

Arecanut palm is cultivated primarily for its kernel obtained from the fruit which is chewed in its tender, ripe or processed form. Though it is native of Malayan Archipelago, Philippines and other East Indian Islands, Commercial cultivation is confined only in India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. India has about 2, 00,000 ha under this crop with an annual production of 2, 28, 600 tonnes. Kerala, Karnataka and Assam account for more than 90 per cent of the total area and production in our country. Arecanut production in India has now almost reached a level of self sufficiency. Uses for arecanut other than chewing are negligible. Its export   prospects are also very much limited. Therefore, the present policy is not to expand the area under arecanut, but to adopt intensive cultivation and take up replanting of the aged and unproductive gardens. Inter and mixed cropping in arecanut gardens is advocated to augment the income from the existing arecanut garden. Botany It is a monoecious palm and its inflorescence is a spadix produced in the leaf axil and is completely enclosed in a sealed boat shaped spathe. The spadix is having a main rachis divided subsequently into secondary and tertiary rachis. Female flowers are confined to tertiary and distal end of the secondary rachis, while male flowers are produced on filiform branches arising below and beyond the female flowers. Both female and male flowers are sessile, with two whorls of perianth. The fruit is a monolocular, one seeded berry and it consists of a fibrous outer husk, enclosing a single seed. It is a cross pollinated crop and fruit set normally varies form 12.0 to 40.0 percent and the time taken from full bloom to maturity of the fruit ranges from 35 to 47 weeks. Climate and Soil The arecanut palm is capable of growing under a variety of climatic and soil conditions. It grows well from almost sea level   up to an altitude of 1000 metres in areas receiving abundant and well distributed rainfall or under irrigated conditions. It is grown in soils such as laterite, red loam and alluvial soils. The soil should be deep and well drained. Varieties There are few local varieties known by the name of the place where they are grown and are Thirthahalli, South Kanara, Mettupalayam, Mohitnagar. Regional Station, Vittal has released three improved cultivars, they are, Mangala: An introduction from China early bearing, higher fruit set, higher yield, semi tall variety. Subamangala: A selection from Indonesia, yield 17.5 kg of nuts/palm at the age of 10 years. Sreemangala: A selection from Singapore yields 16.5 kg/palm at the 10th year. SAS-1: Sirsi Arecanut Slection, resealed from UAS, Dharwad. Raising of planting materials Collection of seed nuts should be confined to high yielding palms which commence to bear early as well as those which give more than 50 % of fruit set. From these selected mother palms, fully ripe nuts are alone collected. All undersized and malformed nuts must be rejected. Heavier seed nuts within a bunch are alone selected, as they give higher percentage of germination and produce seedlings of better vigour than lighter ones.        The selected seed nuts are sown immediately after harvest, 5cm apart in sand beds under partial shade with their stalk ends pointing upwards. Sand is spread over the nuts just to cover them. The beds may be watered daily. Germination commences in about 40 days after sowing and the sprouts can be transplanted to the second nursery when they are about three months old. At this stage the sprouts might have produced two to three leaves. The secondary nursery beds of 150 cm width and of convenient length are prepared for transplanting the sprouts. The sprouts are transplanted at a spacing of 30X30 cm with the onset of monsoon. Partial shade to the seedlings can also be provided during summer by pandal or growing banana. Care should be taken to drain the nursery beds during the monsoon and to irrigate them during the dry months. Weeding and mulching should be done periodically. Seed nuts can also be sown in polythene bags (25 X 15 cm size ,150 gauge) after filling the bags with potting mixture containing 7 parts of loam or top soil, 3 parts of dried and powdered farm yard manure and 2 parts of sand. The seedlings will be ready for transplanting to the main field when they are 12 to 18 months old. Seedlings having 5 or more number of leaves selected. The height of seedlings at the time of planting has a negative correlation with the subsequent yield of the plant. Hence shorter seedlings with maximum number of leaves are removed with a ball of earth for transplanting. If the seedlings are raised in polythene bags, these can be straightway transported to any distance without much damage. Planting The planting is done during May- June with the onset of monsoon. Arecanut palms need adequate protection from exposure to the South Western sun as they are susceptible to sun-scorch. Proper alignment of the palms in the plantation will minimize sun scorching of the stem. In the square system of planting at a spacing of 2.7m X 2.7m, the North South line should be deflected at an angle of 35 degree towards went. The outermost row of plants on the southern and south-western sides can be protected by covering the exposed stem with areca leaves or leaf sheaths or by growing tall and quick growing shade trees. Pits of 90 X 90 X 90cm are dug and the pits are filled with a mixture of top soil, powdered cow dung and sand to a height of 50 to 60 cm from the bottom. The seedlings are planted in the centre of the pit, covered with soil to the collar level and pressed around. A shade of banana can be raised to give protection to the seedlings from sun scorch. Manuring Adequate supplies of plant nutrients in the soil throughout the life of the crop are essential to get high yield. Hence, an annual application of 100: 40: 140 g of NPK per tree in  the  form of fertilizers and 12 kg each of green leaf  and compost or cattle manure per bearing palm is recommended. Under rainfed conditions, half the quantity of fertilizers may be applied in April- May and the remaining quantity in Sep- Oct. Under irrigated condition, the first dose of fertilizer is applied only in Feb. Green leaf and compost can be applied in single dose in Sep- Oct. Irrespective of the age of the plants, full dose of green leaf and compost or cattle manure may be applied from the first year of planting itself while one-third of the recommended quantity of fertilizers in the first year, two-third in the second year and the full dose from the third year onwards. The first dose of fertilizers may be broadcast around the base of each plant after weeding and mixed with the soil by light forking, while the second dose is done in basins around the palm dug to a depth of 15 to 20 cm and at 0.75 to 1m radius. In acidic soils, required quantity of the lime may be applied during the dry months and forked in. Irrigation and drainage The palms should be irrigated once in four to seven days depending on the soil type and climatic factors. In Kerala, arecanut gardens are irrigated during dry months once in seven or eight days during November-December., once in six days during March, April and May. Adequate drainage should be provided during monsoon since the palms are unable to withstand water logging. Drainage channels should be 25 to 30 cm deeper than the bottom of the pits to drain excess water from the plot. Other operations A light digging may be required when the monsoon ends to break up any crust formed at the soil surface and also to   uproot weeds. Weeding should be done periodically to keep the garden clean. Cover cropping Cover crops, such as Mimosa invisia, Stylosanthes gracillis and Calapogonium muconoides have been found to be suitable for arecanut gardens. The cover crops may be sown in the month of April-May and the green matter may be cut and applied to arecanut palms at the time of second dose of fertilizer application. The crops which can be grown successfully in arecanut gardens without loss of arecanut yields are banana, cocoa, pepper, pineapple, betel vine; elephant foot yam, tapioca, dioscorea, sweet potato, arrow root, ginger, turmeric and guinea grass. Nutmeg and clove can be also grown in between four palms on alternate rows. Harvesting and processing The stage of harvesting depends on the type of produce to be prepared for the market. 1. Dried ripe nuts/Chali/Kottapak The most popular trade type of arecanut is the dried, whole nut known as chali or kottapak. Fully ripe, nine months old fruits having yellow to orange red colour is the best suited for the above purpose. Ripe fruits are dried in the sun for 35 to 40 days on dry leveled ground. For drying and dehusking, sometimes fruits are cut longitudinally into halves and sun dried for about 10 days, then the kernels is scooped out and given a final drying. 2. Kalipak Another form of processing is by making kalipak. The nuts of 6 to 7 months maturity with dark green colour are dehusked, cut into pieces and boiled with water of dilute extract from previous boiling; a kalli coating is given and dried finally. Kali is the concentrated extract obtained from boiling 3 to 4 batches of Kalipak.

3. Scented suparis        There are many varieties of scented suparis. Dried arecanuts broken into bits, blended with flavour mixture and packed. Formerly the bits were roasted in ghee or oil, but it is almost fully given up nowadays, owing to development of rancidity. The flavouring of supari varies with region and is a closely guarded secret. In South India scented supari is made from kalipak like batlu Spices and synthetic flavours are added. Instead of raw spices, nowadays, essential oils are used for easy blending. Rose essence as well as menthol is very common. Coconut gratings are not added nowadays to check microbial growth. These are usually packed in butter paper. Scented suparis popular in north and central India are of two types; the one made from chali and the often from kalipak. The former is more popular. At times, saccharin is used for sweetening. Additives like colour and flavour are added. Plastic strips are used for convenient packing. Tin and aluminum pouches are used for bulk packing of scented supari. Post harvest technology Dehusking of arecanut is traditionally done by skilled manual labour with the help of a tool, which has a sickle shaped small pointed blade fixed on a plant. A simple device for dehusking arecanut, developed by CPCRI, Kasargod can also be used. The main advantage of this device is that any unskilled person can operate it. The optimum is about 60 kg husked nuts  in case of dried nuts and 30 kg in case of green nuts if one person operates the device for a day of 8 hours.

1. Scientific name of arecanut?
2. List out the important varieties of arecanut?
3. What are the important cover crops, suitable for arecanut gardens
4. List out the value added products in coconut?
5. Important pest & diseases in arecanut?

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BETEL VINE (Piper betle, Piperaceae)

• Woody climber with adventitious roots at swollen nodes.
• Leaf simple, alternate, cordate, 8-12 cm wide, 12-16 cm long, with Description odor and spicy taste.
• Inflorescence in axillary spike; flowers unisexual, white.
• Fruit globose berry.

Betelvine varieties Source: Betelvine Research Station, Diwthana, Akola	Akot Kapuri	Assam Kapuri
Karapaku Kapuri	Maghai	Ghanagate Bangla

• Select well matured (more than 1 year old) seed vines free from pest and diseases.
• Soak the seed vines for about 30 minutes in Streptocylin 500 ppm or Bordeaux mixture 0.5 %.
• Apply 150 kg N/ha/year through Neem cake (75 kg N) and Urea (75 kg N) and 100 kg P2O5 through Super phosphate and 30 kg Muriate of potash in 3 split doses first at 15 days after lifting the vines and second and third dose at 40 – 45 days intervals.  Apply on beds, shade dried neem leaf or Calotropis leaves at 2 t/ha and cover it with mud (2 t in 2 split doses).
• Drench Bordeaux mixture 0.25% in basins formed around the vine at monthly intervals starting from October – January, three times soil drench and six times spray from June – July.
• During winter season avoid frequent irrigation.
• Remove the affected vines away from the garden and burn them.
• Application of Trichoderma viride @ 5 g/vine.

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1. Betel vine belongs to the family?
2. Propagation methods in Betal vine is _______________
3. Major disease of betelvine is ________________
4. List out the varieties of betel vine is ______________
5. Example for a standard tree species for the cultivation of betel vine is ____________

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CASHEW

(Anacardium occidentale, Anacardiaceae)

Flower

Cashew apple (Pseudo fruit)

Nut (True fruit)

• Collect the nuts during heavy bearing period (Feb-April)
• Sun dry the nuts for 2-3 days
• Select the nuts which sinks in the 10 % salt (NaCl) solution
• Sow the nuts as early as possible, because after 6-8 months the germination of seed nut get reduced. More than one year old seed nut should not be used
• Very big and very small seed nut should not be selected. Select only medium sized nuts for sowing (130-150 nuts/kg).

• Soak the seed nuts in water or cow dung slurry for 2 days or 10 % Sodium hydroxide solution for one day to get higher germination percentage.
• Sow the seeds in poly bags filled with potting mixture (25cm length, 13cm width and 250 gauge thickness)
• Make 30 to 40 holes in each polythene bag for easy drainage of excess water
• Apply 5g of super phosphate per bag along with potting mixture
• Fill the poly bags with potting mixture till the margin and put dried leaves or small stones at base for easy drainage of water
• Place the seeds at 2.0 to 2.5 cm soil depth and keep vertically in which the stalk end of the seed nut facing top
• Apply water after sowing and daily with rose cane and avoid water stagnation
• Seeds germinate with 15 to 20 days after sowing
• Staggered sowing at weekly intervals facilitate to make the stocks available continuously for grafting
• Provide shade to young root stocks; after greening of leaves keep the stocks under open condition or remove the shade
• 40 to 50 days old root stocks are suitable for grafting
• During the germination, the cotyledon comes out of the soil and it is tasty, therefore it will be damaged by birds, monkeys and other animals. So during this period it should be watched carefully
• During this period, the root stocks will be affected by root rot and bacterial leaf blight disease therefore to prevent the root rot  apply 0.2% Thiram or Mancozeb and spray for later apply 250ppm Streptomycin sulphate for bacterial blight.

• Good healthy seedlings, without side shoot, growing straight should be selected
• Better to use the stocks raised in poly bags
• Use the stocks age of 25-30 days for grafting

• The scion providing mother trees should be grown with good fertilizer application and better management
• The shoots from unbeared terminal shoots of 3 to 5 month aged should be selected
• Select the scion of 10-12cm length, uniform pencil thickness with cream coloured bud. The top 4 to 5 leaves of dark green in fully matured should be selected. 90 days old scion only will be used for grafting purpose which gives better graft uptake. The selected scion sticks should be precured by clipping off leaf blades, leaving petiole.

• The new shoots of September- October month are not need any precuring of scion but  during other season retain the petiole of leaves with scion
• Precurred scion can be used for grafting after 7-10 days. The petioles will shed while touching with the fingers.
• The scion mother trees should not be allowed for flowering therefore during flowering season panicles should be pruned

• Collect the scion from the precurred shoots because it will not dry quickly and gives more graft uptake
• Collect the scion before the new flush come from the terminal bud
• Keep the scion separately on variety wise
• After cutting of scion roll with wet cloth and keep in polythene bag and it can be kept for 1-2 days.

• In the selected root stock, trim all the leaves except two pairs of basal leaves
• Decapitated the stocks at 15cm height from the base
• Make a cleavage in the stock from top to 4.5cm in two equal portion  (Figure)

• Select the scion of uniform thickness related to root stock
• Make the length of the scion to 10cm if more lengthy
• Prepare a vedge shape of 4.5cm length in proximal end of the scion after removing bark.

• Keep the vedge shaped scion on the cleft of root stock
• Tie the union with polythene sleeves of 200 gauge thickness of 45 cm length and 1.5cm width

• After tying of grafted  stock, cover the top with 25cm x 4cm 200guage poly bags, it prevents drying of scion
• Keep the grafted poly bags immediately inside the mist chamber for 15-20 days
• After 15-20 days remove the poly bags placed over the grafts in inverted position

• The grafts will be ready for planting within 5-6 months

• IX.  Maintenance of grafts
  • Apply water to grafts daily with rose can
  • Prevent the water stagnation during rainy season
  • Remove the polythene film used for joining the stock and scion after 45 days
  • Remove the shoots comes out from stocks whenever emerges
  • 60 days after grafting remove the leaves retained in the root stock.
  • Many of the grafts flower during flowering season. Therefore remove panicle if grafts flowers
  • Change the place of grafts frequently and keep it in polythene lined floor
  • During the summer provide shade to the grafts and during rainy season shade not necessary
  • Frequent spray of pesticide has to be made to prevent the pest and diseases
  • During planting remove the poly bag without damaging the top root.
  
• PlantingPits of 45 x 45 x 45 cm are dug and filled with a mixture of topsoil, 10 kg of farmyard manure and one kg of neem cake at a distance of 7m x 7m either way during June and planted. In the case of seedling, 45 days old seedlings are transplanted.After cultivationThe interspaces may be ploughed after the receipt of the rain and intercrops like groundnut or pulses or tapioca rose normally till they reach there bearing stage.Training and pruningAll the side shoots must be removed up to a height of atleast 2m from the ground to cause the branches to form and spread out from the upper section of the trunk. Periodical pruning of dead wood and criss cross branches during the month of July is recommended to minimize the losses through diseases such as dieback and to increase the yield. Weeding Clearing the area by manually within 2mtr radius of the trunk and slashing the remainder is essential until the trees shade out most of the trees. Weeding can be done by chemically also. Glyphosate (post emergent) application at 6 to 7 ml per litre of water (0.8 kg a.i./ha) during June – July also effectively controls weeds. Irrigation In India cashew is grown mainly under rain fed condition. However protective irrigation especially summer months during January-march at fortnightly intervals @ 200 liters/plant improves fruit set, fruit retention, thereby increasing nut yield. Mulching Mulching the tree basins will help in conservation of soil moisture and prevents soil erosion. Mulching with organic matter or residues inhibits weed growth and reduces surface evaporation during summer and also regulates the soil temperature. Under sloppy areas, soil and water conservation practices can be done by making trenches of 30 cm width, 60 cm depth. And convenient length may be taken in between rows along the contour. This will not only conserve soil and moisture but will also enable to enhance the growth of cashew.

  Manuring

  Though a regular manurial schedule is not followed by most of the growers, experiments show that application of organic and inorganic manures are essential for higher yield in cashew. The recommended manurial schedule is as follows (per tree per year):

  Age of plantation	FYM (kg)	N (g)	P (g)	K (g)
  One year old Two year old Three year old Four year old Five years and above	10 20 20 30 50	70 140 210 280 500	40 80 120 180 200	60 120 180 240 300

  In places receiving both South West and North East rainfall, the above quantity can be split into two equal doses and applied and in areas receiving only North-East monsoon, the entire quantity is applied during November. Nitrogen may also be given trough foliar spraying (urea 1%) during July and November to get best result. Plant protection Tea mosquito, stem borer, thrips, leaf minor and leaf blossom webber are important pests of cashew. Of these, tea mosquito and stem borer causes economical damage in cashew. Tea mosquito Tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis antonii S.) can cause yield reduction to the tune of 30-40 per cent damaging tender shoots, inflorescence and immature nuts at various stages of development. It attacks the tree in all the seasons during flushing, flowering and fruit setting period but the peak period of infestation is from October to March. To control the pest, spray schedule involving three sprays synchronizing new flushing (October-November), flowering (November-December) and fruit setting (January – February) may be given with the following chemicals:- Quinalphos (25% EC) – 0.05%, Carbaryl (50% WP) – 0.01%, Phosphamidon (85% WSC) – 0.03% The number of sprays should be limited to three and the same insecticide should be used for the subsequent sprays. Stem and root borer – Stem and root borer (Placaederus ferrugineus L.) is also a dangerous pest and kill the entire plant. It is mostly seen in neglected gardens. The larvae of the beetle tunnel into the tree trunk and eat the bark all around the trunk. Manual removing of grubs and pasting the damaged portion with mixture of Carbaryl 50 gm (50%) and copper Oxychloride (25 gm) in one liter of water give effective control.HarvestingThe cashew tree commences fruiting in the third or fourth year, attains the full bearing age by the tenth year and lives for 40 to 50 years. Flowering commences in November and extends upto February. The peak months of harvest are March-April and the remaining crop comes to harvest in February and May. The ripened will fall down and nuts from fallen fruits have to be collected. Yield The yield starting from 1 kg in 3rd-4th year, yield goes on increasing as the canopy develops and one can expect more that 10 kg of nuts in 8 to 10 years old plant depending on management. Drying The nuts collected should be dried immediately under sun by spreading in a thin layer. If the surface is of cement concrete, drying for two full days is sufficient. If the surface is of mud, drying for 3 to 4 days is necessary. While drying, the nuts should be raked quite often. Nuts should not be dried for more than four days since they become brittle and break while processing, causing damage to the kernels.Top workingAs most of the existing cashew plantations are of seedling progenies, the yield level is very low and highly erratic. Hence, top working with improved clones are suggested now. Tree of 20 –25 years old are beheaded at a height of 0.5m from the ground during December – February. A paste, made using 50g each of BHC 50 per cent wettable powder and copper oxychloride in a liter of water, should be applied all over the stump to check any infection by invading pathogens and borer insects. Profuse sprouting normally results in but only 10-15 healthy shoots and properly spaced on the stumps are alone retained. These shoots are grafted at softwood stage (cleft grafting) when they are about 40-50 days old. 7-8 successful grafts may be encouraged to grow vigorously due to the well established root system and they start yielding about 4 kg per tree from the second year of rejuvanation and the yield gradually increase to stabilize at 8 kg from the fourth year of top working.Cashew processingProcessing of cashew is defined as the recovery of edible meat portion- the kernel from raw nuts, by manual or mechanical means. In India, the processing is by manual means. It consists of; 1. Roasting  2. Shelling  3. Peeling 4. Grading 5. Packing 1. Moisture Conditioning or Humidifying: A slight under roasting or over roasting adversely affects the quality of the kernels. This is achieved by a moisture step preceding the roasting. The raw nuts are sprinkled with water and allowed to remain in moist condition for about 24-48 hours. This step is known as conditioning. The optimum moisture level at the end of roasting is reported to be 15-20%. Two important points to betaken care of during conditioning are;
  • The water should not seep through the brown testa.
  • The water should be free from iron contaminations.
  Iron contamination in the water can interact with polyphenolic materials of testa and the resultant bluish black complex may give patches on white kernel.  2. Roasting Roasting is designed to make shell brittle. a. Open Pan Roasting The earliest process was the pan roasting wherein the nuts are heated on a metal pan over an open fire. Due to the heat and slight charring the shells become brittle. The pan roasting is not followed in organized sectors of industries. The two important methods of processing now adopted are; a. Drum roasting and b. Oil bath roasting b. Drum roasting The nuts are fed into a rotating hot drum, which ignites the shell portion of the nut. The drum maintains its temperature because of the oil oozing out of the nuts. The drum is kept in rotation by hand for about 2-4 minutes. The roasted nuts which are still burning are covered with wood ash to absorb the oil on the surface. The rate of shelling and the outturn of whole kernels are very high in this method. However, the main disadvantage is the loss of CSNL which has a very high export potential. In addition there will be considerable heat and acrid fumes in the vicinity of this operation. c. Oil bath roasting In this method, the nuts are held in wire trays and are passed through a bath of cashew shell oil maintained at a temperature of 200-202oC for a period of three minutes whereby the shell oil is received from the shells to maximum possible extent. The vessel is embedded in brick work and heated by a furnace which use spent shell as fuel. During roasting, the shell gets heated and cell wall gets separated releasing oil into bath. As the level rises the oil is recovered by continuous overflow arrangement. The roasted nuts are then converted into a centrifuge. The residual oil adhering to the surface of nuts is removed by centrifuging. The roasted nuts are mixed with wood ash and sent for shelling. In Panruti (Tamilnadu) the conventional roasting is completely avoided. The raw nuts are exposed to the intense sun that is prevalent in that region. The well dried nuts are hand shelled. Here also the CSNL is completely recovered. 3. Shelling After roasting, shelling is done by labour. Each nut is placed edgewise and cracked open with a light wooden mallet and the kernel extracted with or without wire prong. Care has to be taken that the inner kernel is intact and not broken into bits. After kernels are removed from the shells they have to be dried to reduce the moisture to loosen the adhering testa. 4. Peeling Peeling is the removal of testa from the kernels. This is done with help of safety pin or small hand knife.  Peeling is made easier when the kernels are subjected to a heat treatment for about 4 hrs in a drying chamber. 5. Sweating After peeling, the kernels are spread out indoors on cement flooring so that they may absorb some moisture and become less brittle. This prevents the tendency to break easily during grading. 6. Grading The next stage in the processing is the grading of kernels on the basis of specifications for exportable grades. There are 25 exportable grades of cashew kernels. The kernels are stored into wholes, splits and Broken primarily on the basis of visual characteristics. The wholes are again size-graded on the basis of the number of kernels per 1Ib. The entire grading operation is done manually. However for size-grading mechanical operation is also practiced.Specification for cashew kernels

  Grade designation	Number of kernels per lb	Grade designation	Number of kernels per lb
  W 180	375 to 395	W 320	660 to 705
  W 210	440 to 465	W 400	770 to 880
  W 240	485 to 530	W 450	880 to 990
  W 280	575 to 620	W 500	990 to 1100

  General Characteristics Cashew kernels shall have been obtained through shelling and peeling cashew nuts, shall have the characteristic shape, shall be white or pale ivory or light ash in colour, reasonably dry, and free from insect damage, damaged kernels and black or brown spots. They shall be completely free from rancid kernels. The kernels shall be completely free from testa.Grade designations and their trade names:

  Grade designation	Trade names		Trade names
  SW SSW or SW IA DW B S LWP SWP BB	Scorched wholes Scorched wholes seconds or scorched wholes IA Desert wholes Butts Splits Large white pieces Small white pieces Baby bits Cont.	SB SS SP SSP SPS DP DSP DB DS	Scorched butts Scorched splits Scorched pieces Scorched small pieces Scorched pieces second Desert pieces Desert small pieces Desert butts Desert splits

  7. Packing Final operation is packing in 10 kg capacity tins, which are subsequently evacuated and filled with carbon dioxide. In some parts to overcome the possible over-drying a re-humidification step is introduced before packing. The practice of filling with an inert gas is mainly to combat infestation during transit. It may be pointed out that with high quality nut, free from infestation, storing with or without carbon dioxide makes very little difference particularly with reference to rancidity. The importance of inert gas appears to be more for circumventing a possible insect attack from an occasional insect egg entering the tin while packing. Nitrogen can also do the same function. However, carbon dioxide being a heavier gas is more convenient for handling. Contention that absorption of carbon dioxide makes the kernel tastier does not have much truth. In any case the processed kernels are rarely consumed without a subsequent heat processing in the form of roasting frying and/or baking. By products of cashew After the processing of the shell and other left outs are used making some other products. The major bye products of cashew processing are: 1. Cashew Nut Shell Liquid     2. Shell charcoalCashew Nut shell liquid (CNSL)The pericarp of the nut consists of a coriacious epicarp, spongy mesocarp and stony endocarp. The kernel covered with testa membrane is contained in a shell 1/8 inch thick. The mesocarp consists of a honeycomb network of cells containing a viscous liquid called cashew nut shell liquid (CSNL), which provides a natural protection to the kernel against insects. CSNL is a valuable raw material for a number of polymer based industries like paints and varnishes, resins, industrial and decorative laminates, brake linings and rubber compounding resins. CNSL is traditionally obtained as a byproduct during the isolation of kernel. The major constituent of shell oil is cardanol and anacardic acid of which cardanol is separately extracted and used in many industries. The shell oil was used as a preservative for boats and nets and to protect wood from termites. It is now largely exported and used in the manufacture of plastics, indelible inks, water proofing composition and other industrial products. Extraction of CNSL The extraction of CNSL involves various methods viz. hot oil bath, expellers, kiln method, solvent extraction etc, the most common method being hot oil bath. In this method the raw nuts are passed through a bath of CNSL itself by which the CNSL is extracted. This method extracts only 50% of liquid contained in nuts. Then through expellers about 90% of liquid can be extracted.Cashew shell charcoalThe remains of shell after the extraction of CSNL is called shell charcoal. This is used as a fuel.  The shell charcoal is used in processing of cashew for drying after shelling.

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  1. Mode of pollination in cashew?
  2. Fermented product of cashew apple?
  3. Botanically cashew apple is ___________
  4. Mode of propagation in cashew _________________
  5. Export grade of cashew is __________________

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COCOA (Theobroma cacao, Sterculiaceae)

Forastero

Crillo

Trinatrio

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1. Scientific name of cocoa is ____________
2. Two types of cocoa are _________________
3. Mode of propagation in cocoa is ______________
4. _____________ type of flowering is seen in cocoa
5. Major pest of cocoa is _____________

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COFFEE (Coffea arabica and C.canephora, Rubiaceae)

• Single  stem system

• Multiple  stem  system

• Digging: In  the  new clearing, the  field  is  given    a  thorough  digging to  a  depth  of  about  35-45 cm  towards  the  end  of  the  monsoon.  All weeds and  vegetative  debris  are  completely  turned  under  and  buried in  the  soil  while  the  stumps  are  removed.  Once the coffee plants have closed in, annual digging is not done.
• Scuffling or  Soil  stirring: In  established  coffee  fields, scuffling  or soil  stirring is  done  towards  the  beginning  of  the dry period .   It controls weeds and also conserves soil moisture.

• Under the climatic conditions existing   in India. Coffee is being cultivated under shade. It comprises of two canopies   lower or temporary and upper or permanent.
• Dadap    is used as a lower canopy shade in India.  Next  to dadap, silver  oak  is  the  most  commonly  used  tree  for  temporary  shade.
• The most   popular   permanent shade trees found in south India. Albizzia lebbec, A.odoratissima, A.moluccana, Artocarpus integrifolia, etc., Permanent shade trees are generally planted about 12 to 14 m apart. The most convenient time to regulate shade is after pruning and liming.

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1. Coffee was introduced to India by ______________
2. Ploidy level of coffee Arabica is _________
3. Scientific name of tree coffee is _______________
4. What is elephant bean?
5. Botanically coffee fruit is called as _____________

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OIL PALM (Elaeis guineensis, Palmae)

            The oil palm tree is a tropical plant which commonly grows in warm climates at altitudes of less than 1,600 feet above sea level. The species, Elaeis oleifera (H.B.K) Cortes is native of America; and the species Elaeis guineensis Jacq. which originated in the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa (hence its scientific name) is better known as the African oil palm. This tree produces one of the most popular edible oils in the world – a versatile oil of superb nutritional value. It is the most prolific of all oil plants and in commercial terms the one which offers major prospects of development.

Botany Plant Oil palm can reach 60-80 ft in height in nature, but is rarely more than 20 or 30 ft in cultivation. Leaf bases are persistent for years, and prominent leaf scars are arranged spirally on the trunk of mature palms where bases have fallen. Leaves are  up to 25 ft in length, with leaflets numbering 200-300 per leaf, about 3-4 ft long and 1.5 – 2.0″ wide, with entire margins. Leaflets cover the distal 2/3 of the leaf, and the lower 1/3 is spined with spines increasing in length acropetally. Flowers Oil palms are monoecious, producing male and female inflorescences in leaf axils. The inflorescence of both sexes is a compound spadix with 100-200 branches, initially enclosed in a spathe or bract that splits 2 weeks prior to anthesis. Fruit As in many palms, fruits are drupes. The mesocarp and endocarp vary in thickness, with Dura types having thick endocarps and less mesocarp, and Tenera types the opposite.  The exocarp color is green changing to orange at maturity in virescens types, and orange with brown or black cheek colors in the Nigrescens types. Fruit range in size from <1″ to 2″, and are obovoid in shape. The mesocarp, from which palm oil is derived, is fibrous and oily, and the seed is opaque white, encased in a brown endocarp; palm kernel oil is derived from seeds. The female inflorescence contains 200-300 fruit, and fruit set is 50-70%. Fruit ripen about 5-6 months after pollination.

1. Pollination of oil palm is aided by _____________
2. Botanical name of oil palm is __________
3. Propagation materials for oil palm is ______________
4. Type of seed in oil palm is _______________
5. Fruit is botanically called as _____________

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MEDICINAL YAM
(Dioscorea sp., Dioscoreaceae)

Diosgenin, obtained from Dioscorea tubers, is the major base chemical for several steroid hormones including sex hormones, cortisone, and other corticosteroids and is the active ingredient in the oral contraceptive pill. The growing need for steroidal drugs and the high cost of obtaining them from animal sources led to a widespread search for plant sources of steroidal sapogenins; which ultimately led to the identification of the genus Dioscorea as the most promising one.
This genus Dioscorea belonging to family Dioscoreaceae with over 600 species is widely distributed in tropical world. Some of the species like D.­alata and D.esculenta are under cultivation for long time for their edible tubers. There are about 15 species of this genus containing diosgenin. Among this, D.floribunda, D.villosa, D.composita etc. are widely grown for dios­genin production. 

            The major Dioscorea producing countries are Mexico, Guatamala, Costa Rica, India and China. The estimated world consumption of dios­genin is somewhere between 800 to 1000 tonnes per year. India produces only 25 tonnes of diosgenin annually mainly from the natural source and to be self sufficient, India has to step up its production to the tune of about 200 tonnes of Diosgenin per year. The cultivation hints for D. floribunda is dicussed here.
The best adapted species in Kamataka, Assam, Meghalaya, Tamil Nadu, Goa, & Andaman is D.floribunda, an introudction from Mexico. It produces compact tubers at a shallow depth. The diosgenin content varies from 2 to 7 per cent depending on the age of the tubers.

Climate and soil
It is a tropical species preferring a tropical climate without extremity in temperature. It is adapted to moderate to heavy rainfall areas. Dioscorea plants can be grown in a wide variety of soils, but light soil is good as harvesting of tubers is easier in such soils. Extremely heavy clay soils are, in general not recommended, as they restrict tuber growth and make harvesting difficult. Dioscorea tolerates fairly wide variation in soil pH, though very acid soils should be avoided, the ideal soil pH being 5.5 to 6.5.
Varieties
The Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore has released so far two improved varieties.
1. FB(c)-l: This is a composite strain of D. floribunda, which has been released for commercial cultivation. This is a vigorous growing strain relatively free from diseases: This has a diosgenin content of 3 to 3.5 per cent. It is suitable for cultivation around Bangalore and Coorg (Karnataka), Goa, Assam, Maghalaya, Tamilnadu, Maharashtra and Andaman.
2. Arka Upkar: This is a high yielding clone released recently. The plants are very vigorous with a stout, robust vine, bearing broad dark green leaves: The tuber branches are thick, broad and deep. It has a higher diosgenin content of 3.5 to 4.0 per cent.
Propagation
            Dioscorea floribunda can be propagated by tuber pieces, single node stem cuttings or seed. Commercial planting is normally established by tuber pieces only. Propagation through seed progeny is variable and it may take longer time to obtain tuber yields.
Propagation from tuber pieces is accomplished by cutting the tubers into pieces weighing about 50-70 g each. Three types of tuber pieces can be distinguished for propagation purpose. viz (1) Crown, (2) Median and (3) Tip. Crowns produce new shoots within 30 days after planting, since they have preformed buds. Medians and tips may take up to 100 days to sprout. Crowns are therefore preferred for commercial planting. However, if there is a shortage of material, median and tip portions can be used for planting. Dipping of tuber pieces for 5 minutes in 0.3% solution of Benlate followed by dusting the cut ends with 0.3% Benlate in talcum powder before planting or storage in moist sand beds effectively checks the tuber rot. This treatment is very essential for obtaining uniform stand of the crop. The best time for planting is by the end of April so that the new sprouts will grow vigorously during the rainy season commencing in June in India.
For rapid multiplication of the elite materials in the initial stages, single leaf node cuttings can be adopted. The cutting consists of a single leaf with petiole and about 0.8 cm of the stem. Such cuttings are prepared from non-flowering plants. They are pre treated with 500ppm of IBA solution by quick dipping and are planted in the mist chamber in sand beds. Within 8-10 weeks, these cuttings are transferred to plastic bags containing equal mixtures of sand, soil and farm yard manure. They will be ready for transplanting in the main field in six months time. This method is not recommended for commercial planting as the growth is very slow but useful to initially multiply the elite materials in larger number.
For raising a crop from seed, fresh seed should be sown in 8 cm x 12 cm plastic bags in the month of February. Polythene bags may be filled up with a pot mixture containing equal parts of sand, soil and farm yard manure. Vermiculite should be used on the top. Atleast two well filled seeds may be sown in each plastic bag at a depth of 0.5 to 1.0 cm. The nursery may be protected from drying by light shade. The bags may be watered with care, lightly and frequently. The germination process completes within four weeks. The seedlings being a vine, it should be supported promptly with thin twigs.
The best season for transplanting the/seedlings in the fields is June-July. Vigorous seedlings may be alone transplanted and others may be discarded. The bottom and sides of bag may be cut before transplanting so as to transplant the seedlings without disturbing the root system. As the progenies raised from seeds are highly variable and their growth is slow, this method is not recommended for commercial plantations.
Planting
            Land should be prepared thoroughly till a fine tilth is obtained. Deep furrows should be made at 60 cm distance with plough. The stored tuber pieces are ready for planting, seedlings or single node stem cuttings should be planted in furrows with 30 cm between the plants for one year crop and 45 cm for two year crop. The tuber pieces are planted at about 0.5 cm below the soil level. The new sprouts should be staked immediately. After sprouting is complete, the plants could be earthed up. Soil from the ridges may be used for earthing up so that the original furrows will become ridges and vice verse.
After care
Dioscorea vines need support for their optimum growth and hence the vines are trained over pandal system or trellis.
Weeding
            Initially, the vines are weak and tender and can not compete efficiently with the surrounding weeds. Periodic hand weeding, as and when necessary, is essential for the first few months. Experience has shown that once the plants have climbed up on the pandal, the weed populations considerably reduced due to shading. The plants by this stage can also compete more successfully with weeds.
Manures and Fertilizers
             D.floribunda requires high organic matter for good tuber formation. Besides a basal dose of 18 to 20 tonnes of per ha, a complete fertilizer dose of 300 Kg nitrogen, 150 Kg phosphorous and 150 Kg of potassium should be applied per hectare. Phosphorous and potassium should be applied in two equal doses one after the establishment of the crop during May-June and the other during vigorous growth period of the crop (August- September).        
Irrigation
            Irrigation may be given at weekly intervals in the initial stage and afterwards at about 10 day’s interval. However during rainy season no ~irrigation is needed. In Anamalais, it is raised under pure rainfed conditions.
Interopping
            Intercropping with legumes like cowpea, horse gram, duster bean and French bean has been found to smother weeds and also provide an extra income without adversely affecting’ the tuber yield and diosgenin content.
Duration
            The diosgenin content tends to increase with age (2.5 to 3:0 per cent during the first year and 3.0 to 3.5 percent in the second year) and also the tuber yield and hence a two year crop is found to be more economical.
Harvesting
The tubers grow to about 25 to 30 cm depth and hence harvesting is done by manual labour. The best season for harvesting is Feb- March, coinciding with the dry period. On an average 50 to 60 tonnes of fresh tubers can be obtained from one hectare in two years duration.
Plant Protection
The major pests of Dioscorea are the aphids and Red spider mites. Aphids occur more commonly on young seedlings and vines. They feed on the young leaves and stem. Young leaves and vine tips eventually die if aphids are not controlled. Older growth is seldom affected. Red spider mites attack the underside of the leaves at the base near the petiole. Severe infestations result in necrotic areas, which are often attacked by fungi. Both aphids and spider mites can be very easily controlled by 0.5 a.i. Kelthane. No serious disease is reported to infect this crop.

1. Alkaloid content present in medicinal yam is ____________
2. Which species of Dioscorea contain higher amount of Diosgenin?
3. Example of a variety in Medicinal yam.
4. Propagation of medicinal yam is _______________
5. Economic part of medicinal yam ________________

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SARPAGANDHA (Rauvolfia serpentina, Apocynaceae)

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1. Botanical name of sarpagantha ___________
2. Economic part of sarpagantha _____________
3. Alkaloid content present in sarpagantha ____________
4. Propagation of sarpagantha is through ____________
5. Alkaloid in sarpagantha has ________ properties

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OPIUM (Papaver somniferum L., Papaveraceae)

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1. Family of opium poppy is _______________
2. Morphine is obtained from ____________
3. Opium is extracted from which plant part __________
4. Give two varieties of opium poppy
5. Harvesting of opium poppy is called as _____________

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CIMUM

Leaf

Flower

Seed

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1. What are the major constituents in ocimum oils?
2. Genus ocimum contains _________ species
3. Genus ocimum can be broadly divided into 2 groups __________
4. What is the oil recovery percentage in ocimum sp.
5. Seed rate for ocimum sp is _____________

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PERIWINKLE

            Periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus (L) G. Don), belonging to the family Apocynaceae, is one of the few medicinal plants which has found mention in the folks medicinal literature as early as 2nd BC.  The plant has been widely used as an abortifient, purgative, antidiabetic, diuretic, hemorrhagic antimalarial, antidysentric and against skin diseases by the ancient people.
Modern investigation have shown that periwinkle contains more than 100 alkaloids distributed through all the parts of the plant like ajmalicine (raubasin), serpentine and reserpine which are well known for their hypotensive and antispasmodic properties Periwinkle gained further importance after the isolation of vincrisine and vinblastine alkoloids which have importance in cancer, therapy.  Vincristine sulphate is being marked under the trade name ONCOVIN, which is used against acute leukemia, and vinblastine sulphate as VELNR to cure Hodgkin’s disease and other lymphomas and chonocarcinomas.  In addition to the above, the alkaloids leurosidine, leurosovine and rovidine also possess anticancer properties, but they are not used clinically.
Origin and Distribution
The plant is a native of Madagascar and from there it has spread to India, Indonesia, Indo-China, Philippines, South Africa, lsrael, USA and other parts of the world.  In India, it is being grown in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Assam in an area of about 3000 ha.  Farmers prefer it because of its wide adaptability and its ability to grow on marginal lands and drought-tolerance that rules out crop failure.  The presence of alkaloids all over the plant body confers immunity to cattle browsing and the crop loss due to pilferage.
USA is the world’s largest user of this plant’s raw material.  A single firm which has the patent to manufacture Vinblastine and Vincristine sulphate have been consuming more than 100 t of leaves of the plant annually.  Most of it has been imported from Malagasy and the remaining from India and Mozambique.  Hungary is also been one of the major consumer of its leaves followed by West Germany, Italy, Netherlands (raubasin), serpentine, etc. The total demand for these countries is more than 100 t of roots annually.
Soil
The crop is quite hardy and grows well on a wide variety of soils, except those which are alkaline or water-logged.  Deep sandy loam to loam soils of medium fertility are preferred for its large-scale cultivation.  Because, in this soil there is not only a better development of roots, but it is also easy to take them out at harvest time.
Climate
The distribution of the plant shows that there is no specificity in its climatic requirements.  It comes up well in tropical and subtropical areas.  However, the growth in tropical areas is better than in the subtropical areas, where its growth is slow due to the low temperatures in winter.  It can be successfully grown up to an elevation of 1300 m above sea level. A well distributed rainfall of 100 cm or more is ideal for raising this crop on a commercial scale under rainfed conditions.
Manures and Fertilizers
In areas where FYM is available, it is applied at the rate of 10-15 t/ha to obtain good growth and yield from periwinkle plants.  If irrigation is available it is recommended to grow leguminous crops like sun hemp or horse gram and when then reach the flowering stage bury them inside the soil before sowing or transplanting periwinkle.  Green manure will act as a substitute for FYM and is useful in the areas where it is either difficult to procure or it is very expensive.  The seeds of the green manure crop should preferably be treated with bacterial inoculants prior to sowing, to increase the development of root nodules which absorb atmospheric nitrogen and fix it in the soil.  In case organic manure is not applied, it is advisable to apply a basal dose of 25 kg N, 50 kg P2O­5 and 75 kg K2O per hectare per year.
Irrigation
In places where rainfall is distributed throughout the year, the plants do not require any irrigation.  However, in areas where rainfall in restricted to a few months in a particular period approximately 4-5 irrigation will help the plants
Weed Control
This crop requires two weedings in the initial stages of its growth.  The first weeding may be done about 60 days of sowing and the second at 120 days at again.  Mulching the paid with cut grass or rice-straw will also minimize the weed growth.
Application of the chemical weedicide Sinhar at 4-5 kg/ha as a pre-emergent spray is highly effective against oil mount weeds similarly, the application of a mixture of 2-4-D and Grammaxone at the rate of 25 kg/ha to the soil before sowing keeps the weeds under control.
Insect Pests and Diseases
The plant is sufficiently hardy and practically free from the attack of insect pests an diseases.  However, the oleander hawk month is reported on this crop.  Occasionally, some plants have been found to suffer from the little leaf disease, due to infection be mycoplasma resulting in stunted growth and resetting of the leaves of the plant.  The disease can be effectively checked by uprooting and destroying the affected plants.
Recently, another disease ‘dieback’ or twig blight or top rot caused by Pythium butleri, Phytophthora nicotianae, P.debaryanum, Alternaria tenuissima and Colletotrichum demothum has been found to affect the crop during the monsoon in some parts of the country.  The disease can be controlled by spraying Dithane Z-78 at an interval of 10-15 days.  The other fungal diseases reported on this crop are Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium solani and Sclerotiurn rolfsi blight caused by Phthium aphanidermatum as well as leaf-sport caused by Myrathesium raridum. A. tenuissma, A. oltemata, Rhizoctonia solani, Ophiobolus catharanthicala, Hoplosporella marahwadenis and Glomerella cingulata.
Harvesting
i) Roots
The crops are harvested after 12 months of sowing.  The plants are cut about 7.5 cm above the ground level and dried for the stems leaves and seeds. The field is then copiously irrigated and when a reaches the proper condition for digging, it is ploughed and the root are collector.  The roots are later washed well and dried in the shade.
 ii) Leaves, Stem and Seeds
If there is a demand for leaves, two leaf stripping, the fist after 6 months and the second after 9 months of sowing – can be taken.  A third leaf stripping is also obtained when whole plant is harvested.  After the plant is harvested it is dried in the shade. Its second nods dehisce and release the seeds with a light threshing which can be used for the next sowing.  The leaves and stems are also collected separately.  It may be mentioned here; that the seeds collected in this way will have poor germination because they have been collected from pods in different degrades of maturity.  Therefore, in order to obtain good seeds it is advisable to collect them from mature pods two to three months before the harvest of the crop.  The aerial part of the plant between 7.5 cm and about 25 cm above the ground level is taken as the stem for the purpose of marketing.
The total alkaloid content in the leaf varies from 0.15 to 1.34%, of which the average content of vinblastine is 0.002%, while that of vincristine is 0.005%.

Yield
Under irrigated conditions, about 4 t/ha of leaves, 1.5 t/ha of stem, and 1.5 t/ha of roots on an air-dried basis may be obtained.  Whereas, under rainfed conditions, about 2 t/ha of leaves and 0.75 t/ha each of stem and roots on an air-dried basis may be obtained.

1. Anti cancerous principles present in periwinkle _________
2. Periwinkle belongs to the family _____
3. Vincristine sulphate is being marketing under the trade name of ___________
4. Medicinal use of periwinkle is ___________
5. Hypotensive alkaloid present in periwinkle is ___________

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Aloe

1. Aloe vera belongs to the family ____________
2. Edible wax coating of fruits is obtained from _____________
3. Propagule of Aloe vera is ____________
4. Active principle of Aloe vera?
5. Aloin having ————properties

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GUGGAL Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari syn. Commiphora mukul Family – Burseraceae

1. Scientific name of guggal is _____________
2. Guggal belongs to the family _____________
3. Economic part of guggal _____________
4. Chemical constituent of guggal _____________
5. Common adulterant used in guggal is _____________

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BELLADONNA
(Atropa belladonna L.) Family: Solanaceae

Belladonna (Atropa belladonna C.B. Clarke.) belongs to the family Solanaceae. Atrops is commonly called as ‘Deadly nighShade’. The commercial drug is obtained from the leaves, flowering tops and roots of A.belladonna. Leaves and roots of belladonna contain tropane alkaloids whose concentration varies from 0.13 to 0.70 per cent (average 0.45%). Belladonna leaves are widely used for the manufacture of tinctures and plasters. The drug serves as an anodyne, sedative, stimulant, antidiuretic, antiasthmtic, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory. It is also used in the treatment of renal and bilary colic, stomach disorders and to stop sweating. The roots are primarily used in the external treatment of gout, rheumatism and other affiliations.
Soil
Belladonna grows well in deep fertile soils of medium texture, which are rich in humus. Heavy clay soils which are water-logged should be avoided to cultivate this crop.

Climate
It is a temperate crop. It behaves as a perennial in temperate climates and gives maximum herbage and alkaloid yield. In sub-tropical areas, it can be grown as a winter crop. However, the plant behaves as an annual as it dies during the summer months and hence the yield is poor.

Varieties
There are no named varieties in this crop.
Cultivation
Propagation
The crop is propagated through seeds extracted from berries collected usually from September-November. Seeds may be treated with 80 per cent sulphuric acid at the time of sowing for 2 minutes to improve the germination.
Nursery raising
It can be cultivated by direct sowing, but raising nursery gives best results. The nursery may be raised from the second week of May to the end of autumn (September to October) under sufficient shade. The land should be ploughed well so as to give a fine tilth. Raised beds of size 3m x 1m surrounded by drainage and irrigation channels to be made and apply well decomposed FYM to the soil. Seeds pretreated with fungicides like Dithane M-45 or Agallol (10 g per kg of seeds) may be mixed with fine soil (1:4 ratios) and broadcasting in the nursery beds. Cover the seed beds with a layer of FYM and then with straw. Watering of beds should be done immediately after sowing with a rose can.
The seeds germinate in 3 weeks time. Seedlings will be ready for planting in the field when they attain a height of 15-20 cm after 8-12 weeks.
Transplanting
The ideal time for planting in the field is March-April or October-November. Before planting, the seedlings are treated with fungicide like Agallol. Seedlings are planted at a spacing of 50-60 cm in rows kept 60-70 cm apart. It is always safer to plant the seedlings on raised beds with 1 m wide strips or ridges as it avoids water logging and facilitates irrigation. The field may be irrigated immediately after transplanting.
Harvesting, Processing and Yield
The first harvest of the leaves is available three month after planting. Harvesting should be done as soon as the plants start flowering, as it is the period when alkaloid content is higher. The leaves are cut with the help of pruning scissors.
Leaves are dried immediately after the harvest under shade or sun or artificial heat with or without fans for air circulation. Leaves should be turned over frequently while drying.
The roots are also harvested after 3 years. After the harvest, they are washed, cut into 4 inches length, split length wise if thick and shade or sun dried.
During the first year an average of 1000 kg of dry herb is obtained. The yield increases to 1500 kg per hectare during 2nd and 3rd year. The yield of dry roots will vary from 170 to 335 kg per hectare.
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1. Atropin is obtained from _____________
2. Belaclona belongs to the family ______________
3. Economic part of Beladona is ______________
4. Beladona is a _______________ crop
5. Tropane alkaloids have medicinal properties of ________________

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NUX VOMICA Botanical Name: Strychnos nux-vomica Linn. Family: Strychnaceae (Loganiaceae) Common Names: Nux-vomica, Poison Nut, Snake-wood, Strychnine Tree, Quaker Buttons, Yetti (Tamil), Kanjiram (Malayalm)

Therapeutic uses Its dried seeds or beans, and sometimes its bark (called nux vomica) are used in herbal remedies. The seeds contain organic substances, strychnine and brucine, that are used in herbal remedies. Dried seeds of kuchila are nervine, stomachic, and cardio-tonic, aphrodisiac, and respiratory stimulant. It is used as a remedy in chronic dysentery, paralytic and neuralgic disorders, epilepsy, rheumatic arthritis, and hydrophobia. In excessive doses, Strychnos is a virulent poison, producing stiffness of muscles and convulsions, ultimately leading to death. It is an important drug in all systems of medicine. Morphological characteristics             Strychnos species is a medium-sized, deciduous tree, with fairly straight and cylindrical bole and dark-grey or yellowish-grey bark with minute tubercles. The nux vomica grows as tall as 49.2 ft (15 m). The nux vomica has roundish, opposite leaves and attractive white flowers. Leaves are simple, opposite, orbicular to ovate, 6–12 cm long and 6–10 cm broad, coriaceous, glabrous, and five-nerved. Floral characteristics Flowers of kuchila are white or greenish white and fragrant. They occur in many flowered terminal cymes. Calyx is five lobed, pubescent, and small, about 2 mm in size, while corolla is salver shaped and has five lobes. Corolla tube is cylindrical, greenish white inside and slightly hairy near the base. Stamens are five in number and have short filaments. The roughly spherical fruits of the nux vomica are large hard-rinded berries that contain three to eight round, flattened, grayish seeds. These seeds are covered with silky hairs, are known as strychnine nuts, and are hard and extremely bitter in taste. The seeds of the nux vomica contain several alkaloids that are useful for some purposes, particularly strychnine, and to a lesser extent brucine Fruit is an indehiscent berry, 5–6 cm in diameter, thick shelled, orange- red when ripe with fleshy pulp. Seeds are discoid, compressed, and coin like, concave on one side and convex on the other, and covered with fine grey silky hairs. Flowering occurs from March to May and fruits mature up to December. Distribution Strychnos nux-vomica is the name of an evergreen tree native to south East Asia, especially India and Myanmar, and cultivated elsewhere. The range of the nux vomica in cultivation extends from Sri Lanka, southern China, southeast Asia, and northern Australia. The species is indigenous to India and is distributed in moist deciduous forests throughout the tropical India

1. Nux vomica belongs to the family ____________
2. Alkaloid present in Nux vomica is ____________
3. Nux vomica can be used against ____________
4. Economic part of nux vomica ____________
5. Botanical name of nux vomica is ____________

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MEDICINAL SOLANUM (Solanum khasianum (Clarke), Solanaceae) Among the various plants which are being used as raw materials for the production of steroidal drugs, steroid-bearing solanum holds an important place due to its quick growth and low initial investment in its commercial cultivation. It yields a glyco-alkaloid, solasodine, a nitrogen analogue of diosgenine. Solasodine through 16-dehydro-pregnenolone (16 DPA) is converted to a group of compounds like testosterone and methyl­ testosterone and corticosteroids like predinisolone and hydrocortisone. These steroidal compounds have anti-inflammatory, anabolic and antifertility properties, due to which they find large-scale use in health and family planning programmes all over the world. Distribution It is widely distributed in the subcontinent, extending from sea-level up to 2 000 m and is reported from Khasi, Jaintia and the Naga Hills of Assam and Manipur. It occurs in Sikkim, West Bengal, Orissa, the Upper Gangetic Plains and in the Nilgiris, ascending to an altitude of 1 600 m. It is reported from North-east, North-west, southern as well as Central India, and extends into Burma and China. Its com­mercial cultivation is mainly confined to the Akola-Jalgoan tract of Maharashtra in an area of about 3 000 ha. Description of the Plant Solanum khasianum synonym(s): Solanum viarum Dunal (2n = 24), belonging to the family Solanaceae, is a stout, branched, woody shrub attaining a height of 0.75 to 1.5 m. The stem has spines, the leaves are ovate to lobed with spines on both the’ surfaces, the flowers are hermophrodite, borne on axillary clusters, white; the berries are yellowish when ripe or greenish; the seeds are small, brown in colour and abundant, embedded in a sticky mucilage.

1. Scientific name of medicinal solanum is _________
2. Steroidal raw material obtained from ____________
3. Salosoidin used in the manufacture of ___________
4. Origin of medicinal solanum ______
5. Variety of medicinal solanum _____________

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AONLA (Emblica officinalis Gaertn., Syn. Phyllanthus emblica, Euphorbiaceae)

Harvesting and yield

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1. Amla belongs to the family ____________
2. Antioxidant present in Amla __________
3. Give two varieties of Amla _______
4. Major disease of Amla is __________
5. Propagation method of Amla ____________

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SENNA Senna (Cassia angustifolia Vahl.)

Senna is a small perennial under­ shrub, a native of Yemen, South Arabia. The leaves and pods contain Sennosides used for their laxative properties. It was introduced into Tamil Nadu in the eighteenth century where it is grown as an annual crop of 5 to 7 months duration in 8 000 to 10 000 ha both under rainfed and irrigated conditions. Successful cultivations have also been demonstrated in Karnataka (Bangalore) Gujarat (Anand), Rajasthan (Jodhpur) and Delhi with comparable yield and quality of the produce, but it is yet to establish itself as a cash crop there due to the lack of organized marketing. A major part of the produce is exported in the form of leaves, pods and sennoside concentrates, though several pharamaceutical houses utilize it for the manufacture of calcium sennoside granules, tablets and syrups for marketing within the country as well. Germany, Hungary, Japan, Netherlands and the USA are the main markets. The export of leaves and pods from India is of the value of Rs. 20 million annually. In addition, the erstwhile USSR countries buy sennosides (concen­trates) and the current o’1nual export of the sennoside concentrate is around Rs. 20 million. Senna is used in medicine as a cathartic. It is especially useful in habitual constipation. It increases the peristaltic movement of the colon. The pods have the tendency to gripe caused by senna may be obtained by combining it with an aromatic or a saline laxative. The laxative principles of senna are two glycosides, viz., sennoside A and sennoside B. The plant also contains sennosides C & D. A number of other gIycocides have also been reported. It also contains beta-sterol (0.33%) and flavanols-kaemferol, kaempferin and isorhamnetin. They are used in the form of decoctions, powders; con­fections and many other household preparations. Senna extracts, on storage, lose biological activity more rapidly than is revealed by chemical estimation. The leaves/pods as such or in powder form do not lose potency easily. The quantity administered in the form of infusion ranges from 0.6 to 2 g of leaves or pods soaked in 125 ml of warm water for about 12 hours, whereas, it is usually 30 mg of sennosides per tablet. Origin and Distribution             Cassia is a pantropic genus comprising of 500 species, of which 20 are found in the native flora of India. There are two sources of the Senna drug, namely, Cassia augustifolia Vahl, and C. acutifolia. Del. C. angustifolia, commonly called Tirunelvely senna, is indigenous to Somalia, Southern Arabia, part of Sindh (Pakistan) and the Kutch area of Gujarat. In India, it is cultivated in Gujarat, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. In Tamil Nadu it is cultivated in the districts of Thirunelveli, Ramanathapuram, Madurai, Salem and Tiruchirapalli in an area of about 10000 hectares. C. acutifolia known as Alexandrian senna is indigenous to Sudan and Sinai. It is cultivated on a small scale in Sudan and Egypt, and is mainly collected from wild plants of C. acutifolia, whereas the Indian produce comes entirely from the cultivated crop of C. angustifolia and their pods contain about 2.4-4.5 and 1.25 to 2.5% sennosides, respectively. Description of the Plant Cassia angustifolia (2n=28), belonging to the family Leguminaesae, is a small perennial under shrub, below 1 m in height with ascending branches. The leaves are large, compound and pinnate. The full­ grown leaflets are bluish-green to pale-green in colour and emit a characteristic fetid smell when crushed. The flowers are bright yellow in colour, arranged in axillary, (on subterminal) erect, many-flowered racemes. The flowers are not season bound and are borne between, 35 to 70 days of age, depending upon the time of sowing, and its season of cultivation. The pods appear immediately after flowering, are slightly curved, 3.5 to 6.5 cm long and up to 1.5 cm broad, green in the beginning changing to greenish-brown to dark brown on maturity and drying. Each pod has 5 to 7 ovate, compressed, smooth, dark-brown seeds.

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1. Scientific name of Senna is ______
2. Active ingredient of Senna is _______
3. Medicinal properties of Senna is _________
4. Economic part of Senna ______
5. Senna belongs to the family ____________

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ISUBGOL (Plantago ovata Forsk., Plantaginaceae)

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1. Isabgol belongs to the family ___________
2. Sceintific name of Isabgol is ____________
3. Economic part of Isabgol is ____________
4. Two improved varieties of Isabgol ___________
5. Mention the stage of harvest in Isabgol _________

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STEVIA
(Stevia rebaudiana, Asteraceae)

Stevia is a subtropical perennial that produces sweet steviol glycosides in the leaves for which it also known as ‘Cheeni Tulsi’ or ‘Mou Tulsi’. Plants grown at higher latitudes actually have a higher percentage of sweet glycosides. The plant can be utilized as a source for the production of natural sweetener (food), as a source of chlorophyll, phytosterols (non-food: medicine). The sweetener can be converted into gibberellins by fermentation (Non-food — Agrochemicals), the vegetative residue can be used as animal feed and the stalks can be used as a source of cellulose (Non-food: Cellulose industry).
Its medicinal uses include regulating blood sugar, preventing hypertension, treatment of skin disorders, and prevention of tooth decay. The compound obtained from stevia is considered to be the best alternate source for diabetes sufferer. The added value for this new crop can go up to a considerable extent.
Market potential
Market opportunity appears great. Statistics indicate that in some countries up to 30 % of their needed sugar is replaced by stevioside-like sweetness products.
Soil
Stevia prefers a well-drained fertile sandy loam or loam soil, high in organic matter with ample supply of water. It prefers acidic to neutral (pH 6-7) soil for better growth. It requires a consistent supply of moisture, but not waterlogged. Too much soil moisture can cause rot.
Climate
It is a semi-humid subtropical plant that shows higher leaf production under high light intensity and warm temperature. Day length is more critical than light intensity. Long spring and summer days favour leaf growth. Short days trigger blossoming. Stevia prefers partial shade during considerable summer sunshine.
Variety
There are 3 named varieties developed by Sun Fruits Pvt Ltd, Pune viz,
1) S.R.B-123: It can be harvested 5 times in year. The glycoside content is in between 9-12% found suitable for South.
2) S.R.B-512: It is suitable for Northern India and the Glycoside content is in between 9-12%.
3) S.R.B-128: Highest stevioside content up to 21%. Found suitable for Northern India.
4) Material that yields Stevioside in the range of 9 – 12% or above can be used as good material for commercial cultivation and should be maintained by vegetative propagation only.
Propagation
Stevia is usually propagated by stem cuttings, which root easily. Sweetness in leaves varies with varieties. Therefore, for propagation cutting should be obtained from a source, which is high in stevioside and low in associated bitterness. Rooting can be enhanced by using commercial rooting hormones. Cutting should be 2-4 inches long, from leaf axils of current year growth with atleast two leaf buds above ground. All the lower leaves are removed keeping 2or 3 small leaves. Treatment with Paclobutrazol @ 100 ppm has been found to induce the root initiation in short time. Effective outcome of this treatment can be obtained when the cuttings are planted during the month of February-March. Propagation can be done in other period also with varying success.
Land Preparation
Land is either disced and /or harrowed twice to prepare a fairly smooth, firm-planting surface. Around 50 MT of FYM / ha has to be applied as a basal dressing during the last ploughing to incorporate the manure with the soil. With proper drainage and irrigation channels the field is divided into plots of convenient size.
Raised bed preparation
Forming raised beds is the most economical way to grow Stevia. The raised bed should be of 15 cm in height and 60 cm in width. The distance between two rows should be 40 cm and that between each plant 23 cm. This would give a plant population of around 75,000 per hectare.
Planting
March to mid May gives better results. Immediate after planting one irrigation is necessary. The concentration of stevioside in the leaves increases when the plants are grown under long day condition where vegetative period is longer and steviol glycoside yields will be higher.

Irrigation
It needs irrigation, as Stevia cannot stand drought. Sprinkler irrigation (micro sprinklers) is found to be advantageous since the herb is highly sensitive to water stress and requires frequent light irrigation. During summer irrigation at 3-5 days interval gives best results.
Mulching
In order to reduce the impact of drought and high temperature, addition of mulches around the plant is recommended.
Nutrient uptake
Study revealed that at the point of maximum dry matter accumulation, stevia plants consist of 1.4 % N, 0.3% P and 2.4 % K. When biomass production is 7500 kg/ha, it is constituted by 26 % roots, 35 % stems and 39 % leaves. Such biomass would require about 105 kg N, 23 kg P and 180 kg K from both soil and fertilizer. Therefore, the actual rate of application will vary according to soil type and production environment, and need to be optimized for each specific situation.
Manuring and fertilization
Under average condition application of FYM @ 50 t/ha and fertilizers N-60 kg, P2O5 30 kg and K2O 45 kg/ha is recommended. N is applied in three splits once at basal and remaining two applications after first and second cutting. Stevia plants prefer low nitrogen, but high level of phosphorus and potassium. Slow release nitrogen sources are better due to requirement of low level of N and steady release of N from source. Sometimes stevia shows the symptoms of boron deficiency, which leads to leaf spot and that can be rectified by spraying Borax 6 %. Since the feeder roots tend to be quite near the surface, addition of compost for extra nutrients is beneficial.
Plant protection
No serious pest and diseases have been observed. Neem oil diluted in water may be sprayed against aphids if appear. Deer and rabbits are fond of Stevia due to sweet taste. Fencing is necessary.
Harvesting
Time of harvesting depends on land type, variety and growing season. The first harvest of the crop can be had in four months after planting and subsequent harvest once every 3 months. Generally it can be scheduled for mid to late September when plants are 50-70 cm in height. Short days induce flowering. Optimum yield (biomass) and stevioside quality and quantity is best obtained just before flowering. The easiest harvesting technique is to cut the branches off with pruning shears before stripping the leaves. The tips of the stems can be clipped off and added to harvest yield, as they contain as much stevioside as do the leaves. On an average three commercial harvests can be obtained per year. It is better to cut the plants leaving about 10 cm stem portion from the ground. This will facilitate new flushes to emerge, which can be harvested as the next crop. For domestic use leaves may be used fresh for tea or may be combined with mint leaves.
Drying
Immediately after harvest the herb is dried. This can be accomplished on a screen or net. The freshly harvested plants can be hung upside down and dried in shade. It can also be dried using simple drying racks inside transparent poly house or transparent glass roofing or by passing dry air just above room temperature. Drying of the stem and soft green leaf material is completed immediately after harvesting utilizing a drying wagon or a kiln or done naturally in case of large-scale production. Depending on weather conditions and density of loading, it generally takes 24 to 48 hours to dry stevia at 400 to 500 C. The drying process does not require excessive heat; more important is good air circulation. On a moderately warm fall day, stevia can be quick dried in the full sun in about 12 hours. (Longer drying time will lower the stevioside content of the final product). A home dehydrator can also be used, although sun drying is the preferred method. After adequate drying, the leaves are stripped of the stems / twigs and packed and stored in cool, dry place. For large-scale commercial production artificial drying and threshing of the dry herbs to separate leaves may be employed.
Yield
About 15,000kg/ha of green herb is obtained which on drying gives about 4166-kg/ha. After separating stems this yields about 3000 kg/ha in the first year. Yield goes on decreasing from 3rd year of planting and hence terminated.
Packaging
Dry leaves are stored in plastic lined cardboard boxes, sealed, strapped and labeled for further processing. After powdering it is to be packed and leveled properly.
Replacement and replanting
From the subsequent years some plants will die off due to various reasons, these gaps should immediately be filled up by well-developed seedlings raised in large size poly bags. Depending on soil type and management the productivity will decline after 2-3 years and this should be replaced with new plantation.
Growing Stevia in home garden
Stevia can be grown either in pots on balcony or any sunny spot. It does well in “container gardens”. A 10 to 12 inches diameter container filled with a lightweight growing mix is an ideal size for each plant. A little mulch on the top will help retain the moisture in the shallow root zone.

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1. Stevia belongs to the family _____________
2. Scientific name of stevia is __________
3. Economic part of stevia is ____________
4. Propagation of stevia is ____________
5. Season of planting in stevia __________

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COLEUS

Coleus forskohlii Syn: Coleus barbatus Brig.,
It belongs to the family Lamiaceae, is one of the most significant potential medicinal crops of the future as its pharmaceutical properties have been discovered only recently. The tuberous roots are found to be rich source of forskolin (syn.Coleonol) which is being developed as a drug for hypertension, glaucoma, asthma, congestive heart failures and certain types of cancers. The plant is well known throughout the country. In Egypt and Africa the leaves of C.barbatus are used as an expectorant, emmenagogue and diuretic while its foliage is employed in treating intestinal disorders, and it has been used as a condiment in India for a long time. The tuberous roots of this plant resembling a carrot in shape and brown in color are the commercial parts.

Orgin and Distribution

The crop has been distributed all over the tropical and subtropical regions of India, Pakisthan, Srilanka, Brazil and Ethiopia. In India, it is found to be in the subtropical Himalayan regions from Kumaon to Nepal, Bihar and the Decan Plateau of Southern India. It is cultivated in parts of Rajashan, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamilnadu in an area of about 2500ha.

Description of the plant

Coleus barbatus (2n – 30) is an aromatic perennial plant 0.5 m tall with thick tubers and with very showy bluish to pale lavender coloured flowers, arranged in whorls on a long spike like recemes. The entire plant is aromatic (whether fresh or dried).The leaves and tubers have quite different odours, the latter being reminiscent of but quite different from, ginger.
Members of the genus Coleus, have square stems, branched, the nodes are often hairy. The leaves are usually pubescent, narrowed into petioles. The flowers borne on recemes are perfect; the calyx is fine toothed and deflexed in the front. The pale-blue corolla is bilabiate, the lower lobes are elongated and concave. The ovary is four parted and the stigma is bilobed. Coleus flowers are cross-pollinated by means of wind or insects. The species has four didynamus, with declinate stamens where filaments unite as a sheath at the base. The roots are tuberous, fasiculated, Up to 20 cm long and 0.5-2.5 cm thick, they are conical, fusiform, straight, orangish and strongly aromatic.

Varieties

1. Manganiperu: It is cultivated in and around Belgaum districts of Karnataka. The tubers are big, 30.00cm length. It is also commercially cultivated in Tamil Nadu.
2. Garmai: It is cultivated in Gujarat state. The tubers are in medium size.
3. Maimul

Soil

It thrives best in porous and well-drained soils with a pH ranging from 5.5-7.It does not require very fertile soils and can be grown on soils with marginal fertility. The red, sandy loam soils of Karnataka are ideal for the cultivation of the crop.

Climate

Coleus is a crop of the tropics and is found growing well on barren hills at an attitude of about 2400 m, under tropical conditions. In India it is grown mainly in Belgaum and in Gujarat. The climate here is humid with RH ranging from 83 to 95% and a temperature of 10 -25C. The annual rainfall is 100-160cm, mainly between June to September. It is also found to perform well in less humid and warmer regions of South India like Coimbatore, where it is grown as an irrigated crop.
Seed and seed rate
The crop is propagated through terminal cuttings (10 cm) or rooted cuttings.
Season
Planting is done during June – July.
Planting
Planting is done at 60 x 45 cm spacing (37,030 plants/ha). In low fertile soils, planting is done at 60 x 30 cm which requires 55, 500 plants/ha.

Before planting the field is ploughed deep soon after the pre monsoon showers and brought to a fine tilth.
Manures and fertilizers
Studies conducted at TNAU, Coimbatore, to standardize the nutritional requirement of this crop have shown that it response well to the application of FYM 15t/ha, 30kg N, 60kg P2O5 and 50kg K2O/ha and dry (3.982t/ha) tuber yield from this crop. Half the dose of N, the whole P and whole K may be applied as the basal dose followed by the remaining half N, 30 days after planting as top-dressing. Apply 10 kg ZnSo4/ha to avoid micronutrient deficiency.

Irrigation

The first irrigation is given immediately after transplanting, if there are no rains. During the first 2 weeks after planting, the crop is irrigated once in 3 days and thereafter weekly irrigation is enough to obtain good growth and yield.

Weeding

Due to the frequent irrigations during the initial stages, there is a lot of competition from weeds. In order to obtain economic yields, frequent weeding during the early growth period is desirable.

Pest and diseases

Pests

The leaf –eating caterpillars, mealy bugs and root-knot nematodes are the important pests that attack this crop. These insects can be controlled by spraying the plants and drenching their roots with 0.1% methyl parathion, while nematodes can be controlled by the application of carbofuran granules @ 20kg/ha.
Plant protection
Among diseases, bacterial wilt is he major one.
Nematode
1. Crop rotation with Sorghum and Maize can be maintained
2. Planting of marigold along the sides of channels control nematode population
3. Apply 200 kg/ha of neem cake before planting
4. Apply 15 – 20 kg/ha of Carbofuran to control the infestation
Root rot
Trichoderma viridi @ 5 kg/ha is mixed with well rottened FYM and applied twice at 20 days interval.
Bacterial wilt
Drench 300 ppm of Streptocycline to control the wilt. Also apply Pseudomonas fluorescence 5 kg/ha by mixing it with well rottened FYM.
Harvesting
Flowers if any should be nipped off during the growing period to obtain more biomass of roots. The crop is ready for harvest 4.5 to 5 months after planting. The plants are loosen, uprooted, the tubers separated, cleaned and sun dried for the extraction of “forskolin”.

Yield
Fresh tubers             :           15 – 20 t/ha
Dry tubers                :           2000 – 2200 kg/ha

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1. Economic part of coleus is ___________
2. Active ingredients present in coleus is __________
3. Propagation of coleus is ____________
4. Coleus can be used as drug for ___________
5. Mode of pollination in coleus is __________

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ACORUS
Botanical Name: Acorus calamus
Family: Acoraceae (Araceae)
Common Names: Sweet flag, Vacha, Acorus, sweet calomel

Distribution
Acorus calamus plant is found near swamps and banks in Asia, Europe, and North America.
Introduction
Acorus calamus is commonly known as sweet flag in India. The leaves of Acorus calamus have a lemony scent as well as the roots have a sweet fragrance. Acorus calamus has long been known for its medicinal value, and has been cultivated in Asia for this reason.
Plant Description
Acorus calamus is a perrenial, semi-aquatic and smelly plant, found in both temperate and subtemperate zones. It is up to 6 feet tall, aromatic, sword-shaped leaves and small, yellow/green flowers with branched rhizome.
Parts Used
Rhizome or the Root
Chemistry
Acorus calamus contains monoterpene hydrocarbons, sequestrine ketones, (trans- or Alpha) Asarone (2, 4, 5-trimethoxy-1-propenylbenzene) and Beta-asarone (cis- isomer).
History
Acorus calamus plant has a long history of usage in both Native and non-Native folk medicine traditions. Aromatic roots used medicinally and ritually by Algonquins, Cree and other NE tribes. Acorus calamus, a sterile triploid, was introduced to India and North America by early European settlers, who grew it for medicinal uses. Rhizomes propagate easily, and the species has spread throughout India and northeast and central United States.
Action & Uses of Acorus calamus

• Acorus calamus is slightly tonic but forms a useful adjunct to other tonics and stimulants.
• Acorus calamus is very popular for the remedies of cough and cold and also the other respiratory disorders like bronchitis. In raw form it is also used as cough lozenge.
• Acorus calamus provides aid to the digestive system and acts against flatulent colic, Dyspepsia, and vomiting.
• Acorus calamus depresses central nervous system, and a well known ingredient in formulation for psycho-somatic disorders like epilepsy.
• The vapours of Acorus calamus from the roots do repel some insects.

Cultivation details
Soil and Climate
Prefers, growing in shallow water or in a very moist loamy soil. Requires a sunny position. Prefers a pH range of 5.5 to 7.5. Plants are hardy to about -25°c.
Propagation
This plant is propagated through roots/rhizomes and seeds. Roots of 5-6 cm, firm, and free from any damage or infection is used.

How to Grow Acorus calamus

Seed should be planted during the fall or winter in a greenhouse. Fill a 2-inch deep tray with an organic soil mix, scatter seed sparsely on the surface and press firmly into the soil. Do not bury further than 1/8 inch deep. Keep the soil from moist to saturate.
Seed does not require stratification and germinates in less than 2 weeks. When plants reach 3 to 4 inches, transplant them into individual 4-inch pots. Pots can be placed in shallow water or irrigated frequently to maintain very moist to saturated conditions.
Transplant outdoors 1 foot apart in the spring. With adequate moisture seed can also be planted outdoors spring through early summer or in a cold frame late summer through fall. Keep soil very moist to saturated, sweet flag does not tolerate droughty conditions. It should be planted where it will be in full sun to partial shade.
Calamus grows well under seasonal shallow inundation. However, avoid flooding of newly established plants or seeded areas. Starter fertilizers may be used indoors to improve early growth but are unnecessary once transplanted outdoors into a rich soil.
The spadix will turn brown as the seed ripens in late summer or early fall. Seed can be planted immediately or stored in low humidity refrigeration.
The flowering head, produced from the side of the stalk, consists of a fleshy spike sometimes three and half inches long and about 1/2 inch in thickness, closely covered with very small, greenish yellow flowers, which appear from May to July.
The rhizome should be gathered in early spring or in October and November. Dirt and bitter rootlets should be removed and the rhizome should be dried quickly in a warmed room. The leaves also possess the aromatic properties of the rhizome, but to a lesser extent. Leaves are not employed as a medicine.
Harvest and yield
Rhizomes should be harvested for medicinal use in early spring before new growth, or late autumn. Collect when large and firm, generally after 2 to 3 years of growth, before becoming hollow.
The crop produces 1-1.5 tons of dry rhizome per acre.

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• Botanical name of Acorus __________
• Acorus is commonly called us _________
• Economic part used in Acorus _______
• Active principles present in Acorus _____
• Propagation of Acorus is _____________

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